MAN AS A THINKING BEING

RENE DESCARTES

▪ BORN IN LA HAYE, FRANCE TO BOURGEOIS FAMILY OF DOCTORS

AND LAWYERS
▪ FINISHED HIS STUDIES ON GRAMMAR, MATHEMATICS AND
PHILOSOPHY IN LA FLECHE
▪ DEVELOPED INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS DUE TO THE CERTAINTY
AND PRECISION OF MATHEMATHICAL SYSTEM
▪ DEVELOPED VARIOUS METHODS OF APPLYING MATHEMATICS TO
OTHER DISCIPLINES SUCH AS PHILOSOPHY
DESCARTES’ PHILOSOPHY

▪ CONCERNED HIMSELF MAINLY ON THE CERTITUDE OF

KNOWLEDGE
▪ HE WANTED TO GIVE PHILOSOPHY A NEW BEGINNING
▪ REASON AS THE SOLE BASIS OF INTELLECTUAL CERTAINTY
▪ HE WANTED A SYSTEM OF TRUTH WHOSE VARIOUS PRINCIPLES
WERE
CARTESIAN METHOD
Universal Mathematics

▪ Descartes’ attempt to make all knowledge mathematical.

▪ Mathematical certainty is result of a special way of thinking.
▪ But mathematics is not the method itself but it only shows the
method.
▪ Our minds are capable of knowing some ideas with absolute clarity
and distinctness.
 Edifice of Knowledge

Intuition Deducton
▪ An intellectual activity or vision ▪ All necessary inference from
that it is so clear that it will not facts that are known with
leave any doubt in our mind. certainty.
▪ Truth that are basic, simple and ▪ Draws more information about
irreducible our intuitions.
▪ Gives us foundational
concepts.
 SYLLOGISM – INVOLVES RELATIONSHIP
OF CONCEPTS
EXAMPLE:

DEDUCTION NOT ALL MARTYRS ARE SAINTS.

ARISTOTELIAN BUT NO SAINTS ARE EVIL CREATURES.
LOGIC
THEREFORE, NO EVIL CREATURES ARE
MARTYRS.
RELATIONSHIP OF
FACTS NOT
CONCEPTS
KNOWLEDGE

▪ REQUIRES THE USE OF INTUITION WHERE FIRST PRINCIPLES ARE

GIVEN BY INTUITION ALONE WHILE THE REMOTE CONCLUSIONS
ARE FURNISHED ONLY BY DEDUCTION
4 RULES OF THE CARTESIAN METHOD

1. TO ACCEPT NOTHING AS TRUE THAT IS NOT KNOWN TO BE

TRUE, AND TO USE IN MAKING A JUDGMENT ONLY WHAT IS
PRESENTED TO THE MIND SO CLEARLY AND DISTINCTLY THAT IT
CANNOT BE DOUBTED.
2. TO DIVIDE EACH PROBLEM INTO ITS ESSENTIAL PARTS
3. TO BEGIN WITH THOSE THINGS THAT ARE EASIEST TO KNOW
AND PROCEED TO THE MORE COMPLEX.
4. TO MAKE SURE THAT NOTHING IS OMMITTED
THREE CLASSES OF IDEAS

1. ADVENTITIOUS (COMES FROM SOMETHING ELSE)

2. INVENTED (FACTITIOUS)
3. CLEAR AND DISTINCT
Methodic Doubt

▪ Cartesian Method, the process of calling into question any judgment

or proposition, regardless of how true it may seem to be, in order to
get one that cannot be doubted or that, perhaps, in the very act of
doubting is affirmed.
▪ Not total denial or rejection but to put in abeyance.
 Evil Genius
(mauvais genie)

▪ A powerful and cunning being which employed all his energies in

order to deceive.
▪ Opens up the hypothesis of doubting
 COGITO ERGO SUM
(I THINK THEREFORE I AM)

DESCARTES’ MOST SIGNIFICANT PHILOSOPHICAL REALIZATION

 MAN IS SPIRIT

▪ MAN IS A THINKING BEING (CARTESIAN DUALISM)

▪ MAN BY NATURE IS MIND
▪ THE MIND AND THE BODY ARE TWO DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES
BUT THEY INTIMATELY RELATED AS TWO INDEPENDENT
SUBSTANCES ACTING TOGETHER, CLOSE BUT SEPARATE.
▪ THE BODY IS A MACHINE SO EXQUISITE THAT ONLY GOD CAN
FASHION IT.
 GOD AS THE PERFECT BEING

▪ THE IDEA OF PERFECTION IMPLIES EXISTENCE

▪ GOD MUST NECESSARILY EXIST IF HE IS TO BE A PERFECT BEING
▪ GOD EXIST OUTSIDE THE MIND
▪ GOD IS THE ONLY IDEA WHOSE ESSENCE IS HIS OWN EXISTENCE
BARUCH SPINOZA
BENEDICT DE SPINOZA

▪ BORN IN 1632 IN HOLLAND OF A JEWSIH PARENTS WHO MOVED TO

AMSTERDAM FROM PORTUGAL INORDER TO ESCAPE THE
INQUISITION THAT HAD SPREAD ACROSS THE IBERIAN PENINSULA
▪ WAS GIVEN THE NAME BARUCH, “BLESSED” IN JEWISH
▪ EDUCATED IN THE TALMUD TORAH SCHOOL ON ARAMAIC,
LITURGY, TORAH AND THE RABBINICAL COMMENTARIES
▪ READ AND APPRECIATED THE WORKS OF SOME JEWISH
PHILOSOPHERS SUCH AS MAIMONIDES AND GERSONIDES
▪ HIS DESIRE TO GROW IN PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE DROVE
HIM TO LOOK FURTHER
▪ PLACED HIMSELF UNDER THE DIRECTION OF FRANCISCUS VAN
DE ENDEN, AN EX JESUIT KNOWN FOR HIS IRRELIGIOUS CAST OF
MIND AND PASSION TOWARDS DEMOCRATIC PHILOSOPHICAL
IDEALS
▪ IN 1656 BARUCH WAS EXCOMMUNICATED BY THE ELDERS OF THE
SYNAGOGUE
▪ STARTED HIS LITERARY CAREER ON THE LATE 1650’S WITH HIS 1ST
WORK THE TREATISE ON THE EMENDATION OF THE INTELLECT
▪ LATER WROTE HIS MASTER PIECE THE “ETHICS” WHICH CONTAINS
HIS MOST FAMOUS THESES: THE IDENTITY OF GOD
▪ 1670 PUBLISHED ANOTHER BOOK ENTITLED THEOLOGICAL-POLITICAL
TREATISE WHICH IS ABOUT THE STABILITY AND SECURITY OF SOCIETY
BEING ENHANCNCED BY REASON
▪ THE THEOLOGICAL-POLITICAL TREATISE WAS LATER BE CONSIDERED
AS AN EVIL WORK
▪ BARUCH DEDICATED HIS REMAINING DAYS WORKING ON HIS
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY FOLLOWING THE IDEAS OF MACHIAVELLI AND
HOBBES BUT DUE TO HIS FAILING HEALTH LEFT IT UNFINISHED
▪ HE DIED IN 1677 AND AFTER HIS DEATH ALL HIS MANUSCRIPTS WERE
SHIPPED TO AMSTERDAM FOR PUBLICATION
▪ HIS WORKS WERE BANNED IH HOLLAND IN 1978.
HIS METHOD

▪ KNOWLEDGE CAN BE ATTAINED BY FOLLOWING THE METHODS OF GEOMETRY

▪ ADDED HIGHLY SYSTEMATIC PRINCIPLES OF AXIOMS

▪ NATURE OF REALITY CAN BE DEMONSTRATED

▪ THE ORDER AND CONNECTION OF IDEAS IS THE SAME AS THE ORDER AND
CONNECTION OF THINGS

▪ TO OBSERVE CAREFULLY THE ORDER OF THINGS IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND THE

VARIOUS ASPECTS OF NATURE

▪ IF EVERYTHING DEPENDS THEIR NATURE TO GOD, IT IS THEREFORE IMPORTANT THAT

WE KNOW EVERYTHING THAT WE CAN ABOUT GOD BEFORE WE CAN UNDERTSTAND
THINGS.

▪ GOD IS PRIOR TO ALL THINGS, PHILOSOPHY MUST FORMULATE IDEAS ABOUT GOD 1 ST

▪ HE BEGIN HIS PHILOSOPHY WITH THE PROBLEM OF THE NATURE AND EXISTENCE OF
GOD
THE NATURE OF GOD

▪ GOD IN RELATION TO THE WHOLE COSMOS

▪ DEUS SIVE NATURA (GOD OR NATURE)
▪ NOTHING CAN BE CONCIEVED WITHOUT GOD
▪ THE ULTIMATE NATURE OF REALITY IS A SINGLE SUBSTANCE
▪ SUBSTANCE IS WHICH IS IN ITSELF AND IS CONCEIVED THROUGH
ITSELF. A CONCEPCION WHICH IS INDEPENDENT, SELF-CAUSED
INFINITE SUBSTANCE. IMPLIES EXISTENCE
▪ ATTRIBUTE IS WHICH THE INTELLECT PERCIEVES AS CONSTITUTING
THE ESSENCE OF A SUBSTANCE
▪ GOD IS “A SUBSTANCE CONSISTING OF INFINITE ATTRIBUTES,
POSSESES AN INFINITE NUMBER OF ASPECTS TO HIS ESSENCE”
▪ WITH MAN’S LIMITED PERSPECTIVE WHAT HE CAN KNOW ABOUT
GOD ‘S SUBSTANCE IS ONLY THE THOUGHT (MIND) AND
EXTENSION (BODY) WHICH ARE DIFFERENT WAYS OF
EXPRESSING THE ACTIVITY OF A SINGLE SUBSTANCE
▪ BEING INFINIITE, GOD THEREFORE CONTAINS EVERYTHING
GOD AND THE WORLD

▪ GOD AND THE WORLD ARE ONLY ONE SUBSTANCE

▪ GOD IS INTERCHANGEABLE WITH NATURE (PANTHEISM)
▪ FOR SPINOZA THERE ARE TWO ASPECTS OF NATURE:
1. NATURA NATURANS (NATURE NURTURING)
2. NATURA NATURATA (NATURE NURURED
JOHN LOCKE
“FOUNDER OF EMPIRICISM”
PROBLEMATIC:

“ORIGIN, CERTAINTY AND EXTENT OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE”

FUNDAMENTAL THESIS:
“ALL IDEAS COME FROM EXPERIENCE”
EMPIRICISM ( FROM THE GREEK EMPEIRIKOS WHICH
REFERS TO EXPERIMENT OR TRIAL)
EPISTEMOLOGY

▪ AT FIRST THE HUMAN MIND IS TABULA RASA (EMPTY

SLATE/BLANK SHEET) WHICH NOTHING HAS YET BEEN WRITTEN.
▪ NIHIL IN INTELLECTU QUOD PRIUS NO FUERIT IN SENSU
(NOTHING EXIST IN THE MIND THAT WAS NOT FIRST IN THE
SENSES)
2 TYPES OF EXPERIENCE

1. EXTERNAL – ALSO KNOWN AS SENSATION, GIVES US IDEAS

SUPPOSED EXTERNAL OBJECTS, SUCH AS COLOR, SOUND,
EXTENSION, MOTION ETC.
2. INTERNAL – OR REFLECTION MAKES US UNDERSTAND THE
OPERATION OF THE SPIRIT ON THE OBJECTS OF SENSATION
SUCH AS KNOWING, DOUBTING, BELIEVING ETC.
TYPES OF IDEAS

1. SIMPLE IDEAS – CONSTITUTE THE CHIEF SOURCE OF THE RAW

MATERIALS OUT OF WHICH OUR KNOWLEDGE IS MADE.
RECEIVED PASSIVELY BY THE MIND THROUGH THE SENSES
2. COMPLEX IDEAS – IDEAS PUT TOGETHER BY THE MIND AS
COMPOUND OF SIMPLE IDEAS
THE QUALITIES OF OBJECTS

1. PRIMARY QUALITIES – THE REAL QUALITIES OF OBJECTS THAT

ARE INHERING IN AND INSEPARABLE FROM THE OBJECTS SUCH
AS SOLIDITY, EXTENSION, FIGURE, MOTION, REST AND
QUANTITY.
2. SECONDARY QUALITIES – CONTINGENT PROPERTIES OF THE
OBJECTS, NOT INHERENT AND CAN BE SEPARATED SUCH
COLOR, SOUND, SMELL, TASTE ETC.
KNOWLEDGE

▪ IS NOTHING MORETHAN THE PERCEPTION OF THE CONNECTION

OF IN AGREEMENT OR DISAGREEMENT AND REPUGNANCY TO
ANY OF OUR IDEAS
3 TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

1. INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE – THE CLEAREST AND MOST CERTAIN

THOUGHT THAT HUMAN FRAILTY IS CAPABLE OF. (BASED ON
REPETITIV EXPERIENCE)
2. DEMONSTRATIVE KNOWLEDGE – OCCURS WHEN OUR MINDS
TRY TO DISCOVER THE AGREEMENT OR DISAGREEMENT OF OUR
IDEAS BY CALLING ATTENTION TO OTHER IDEAS. THE KIND OF
KNOWLEDGE THAT LEADS MIND TO KNOWLEDGE OF SOME
FORM OF EXISTING REALITY.
3. SENSITIVE KNOWLEDGE – NOT A KNOWLEDGE IN A STRICT
SENSE BUT ARE OBJECTS THAT EXIST OUTSIDE THE MIND.
PROVIDES UNCERTAIN KNOWLEDGE.
GEORGE BERKELEY
“TO BE IS TO BE PERCIEVED”
GOD

▪ THE GUIDING PRINCIPLE IN HIS PHILOSOPHICAL PURSUIT

▪ OUT OF LOVE FOR HUMAN PERSON HAD EQUIPPED HIM TO
OVERCOME LIFE.
▪ THE DIFFICUTY IN ASSENTING TO THE DIVINE IS NOT DUE MAN’S
INCAPABILITIES BUT TO THE ABUSE AND MISUSED OF THE MIND
▪ BERKELEY’S TASK IS TO REMOVE THE ABSURDITIES PHILOSOPHY
HAS BECOME ENCRUSTED WITH.
EPSITEMOLOGY

▪ THE ABUSED OF LANGAUGE THROUGH ABSTRACTION

▪ THERE IS REALLY NO ABSTRACTION
▪ QUALITIES WHETHER PRIMARY OR SECONDARY ARE NOT
ABSTRACTED
ESSE EST PERCIPI (TO BE IS TO BE
PERCIEVED)

▪ NOTHING EXIST OUTSIDE THE MIND

▪ SENSORY OBJECTS ARE MENTAL OBJECTS
▪ SENSE IS IN THE SENSING MIND
▪ NOTHING REALLY EXISTS EXCEPT THE THINKING THING OR THE
PERCIEVER
▪ NOTHING EXIST IN THEMSELVES, ONLY THINGS AS PERCIVED
GOD

▪ THE UNIVERSAL PERCIEVERS