Nervous System

Nervous System
 Master control and communication system
 Nervous System: Functions
 Three overlapping functions
– Sensory receptors monitor changes inside and
outside the body
 Change – a stimulus
 Gathered information – sensory input
– CNS Processes and interprets sensory input
 Makes decisions – integration

– Dictates a response by activating effector organs

 Response – motor output
 Basic Organization
sensory receptor (sensory input)  integration  (motor output)  effector

 Sensory Input triggered by

stimuli
– conduction of signals to
processing center

 Integration
– interpretation of sensory
signals within processing
centers

 Motor output
– conduction of signals to
effector cells (i.e. muscles,
gland cells)
 The Nervous System
• Components
– Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors
• Responsible for
– Sensory perceptions, mental activities,
stimulating muscle movements, secretions of
many glands
• Subdivisions
– Central nervous system (CNS)
– Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Central Nervous System

• Consists of
– Brain
– Spinal cord
• Brain and spinal
cord
– Continuous with
each other
Peripheral Nervous System
• Two subcategories
– Sensory or afferent
– Motor or efferent
• Divisions
– Somatic nervous
system
– Autonomic nervous
system (ANS)
» Sympathetic
» Parasympathetic
 Basic Divisions of the Nervous
System: PNS
 Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
– Outside the CNS
– Nerves extending
from brain and spinal
cord
 Cranial nerves
 Spinal nerves
– Link all regions of the
body to the CNS
Nervous System Organization
 Sensory Input and Motor
Output
 Sensory signals picked up by sensory
receptors
– Carried by afferent nerve fibers of PNS to the
CNS
 Motor signals are carried away from the CNS
– Carried by efferent nerve fibers of PNS to
effectors
– Innervate muscles and glands
 Sensory Input and Motor
Output
 Divided according to region they serve
– Somatic body region
– Visceral body region
 Results in four main subdivisions
– Somatic sensory
– Visceral sensory
– Somatic motor
– Visceral motor
 Somatic Sensory
 Somatic sensory
– General somatic senses – receptors are widely
spread
 Touch, pain, vibration, pressure, and temperature
 Proprioceptive senses – detect stretch in tendons and
muscle
 Body sense – position and movement of body in
space
– Special somatic senses
 Hearing, balance, vision, and smell
 Visceral Sensory
 Visceral sensory
– General visceral senses – stretch, pain,
temperature, nausea, and hunger
 Widely felt in digestive and urinary tracts,
reproductive organs
– Special visceral senses – taste
 Somatic Motor
 Somatic motor
– General somatic motor – signals contraction of
skeletal muscles
 Under voluntary control
 Often called “voluntary nervous system”
 Visceral Motor
 Visceral motor
– Regulates the contraction of smooth and
cardiac muscle and gland secretion
– Makes up autonomic nervous system
– Controls function of visceral organs
– Often called “involuntary nervous system”
Peripheral Nervous System
Summary

Figure 12.3
Types of Sensory and Motor
Information

Figure 12.3
Types of Sensory and Motor
Information

Figure 12.3
 Nervous Tissue

 Cells are densely packed and intertwined

– Two main cell types
 Neurons – transmit electrical signals

 Support cells (neuroglial cells) – nonexcitable

– Surround and wrap neurons

 *Glia and Neurons
Neuroglia (“glue”): provide physical support
Control nutrient flow
Communication with neurons
Phagocytosis
Neurons: Process information
Sense environmental changes
Communicate changes to other neurons
Command body response
 The Neuron
 The human body contains billions of
neurons
– Basic structural unit of the nervous system
 Specialized cells conduct electrical impulses along

the plasma membrane

– Graded potentials
– Action potentials
Cells of Nervous System
• Neurons or nerve cells
– Receive stimuli and
transmit action
potentials
– Organization
• Cell body or soma
• Dendrites: Input
• Axons: Output
• Neuroglia or glial cells
– Support and protect
neurons
Section 1 General Function of Neuron and Neuroglia
I Neuron
 The Neuron: Special
Characteristics
– Longevity – can live and function for a lifetime
– Do not divide – fetal neurons lose their ability
to undergo mitosis; neural stem cells are an
exception
– High metabolic rate – require abundant oxygen
and glucose
Neuron Structure
1. Structure and Function
Typical Neuron has 4 Regions

• Cell Body
• Dendrites
• Axon
• Presynaptic Terminals
Each region is specialized
for its particular function
Information flows in a single
direction
The Cell Body or Soma (also
called Perikaryon)
– Size varies from 5–140µm
– Contains nucleus, organelles plus other
structures
 Chromatophilic bodies (Nissl bodies)
– Clusters of rough ER and free ribosomes
– Stain darkly and renew membranes of the cell
 Neurofibrils – bundles of intermediate filaments
– Form a network between chromatophilic bodies
Nissl Body Staining
 The Cell Body
 Most neuronal cell bodies
– Located within the CNS (clustered in nuclei)
– Protected by bones of the skull and vertebral
column
 Ganglia – clusters of cell bodies in PNS
Cell Body Structure

Figure 12.4
 Neuron Cell Body Location

 Most are found in the central nervous

system
 Gray matter – cell bodies and unmylenated
fibers
 Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the
white matter of the central nervous system
 Ganglia – collections of cell bodies
outside the central nervous system
Neuron Anatomy

 Extensions
outside the cell
body
 Dendrites –
conduct
impulses toward
the cell body
 Axons – conduct
impulses away
from the cell
body (only 1!)
 Dendrites of Motor Neurons
• Short, tapering, and
diffusely branched
processes
• They are the
receptive, or input,
regions of the
neuron
• Electrical signals
are conveyed as
graded potentials
(not action
potentials)
 Neuron Processes: Dendrites
 Dendrites
– Extensively branching from
the cell body
– Transmit electrical signals
(graded potentials) toward
the cell body
– Chromatophilic bodies – only
extend into the basal part of
dendrites
– Function as receptive sites
Dendritic Spines
• Slender processes of Axons: Structure
uniform diameter arising
from the hillock
• Long axons are called
nerve fibers
• Usually there is only one
unbranched axon per
neuron
• Rare branches, if present,
are called axon collaterals
• Axonal terminal –
branched terminus of an
axon
 Neuron Processes: Axons
 Axons
– Neurofilaments, actin
microfilaments, and
microtubules
 Provide strength along
length of axon
 Aid in the transport of
substances to and
from the cell body
– Axonal transport
 Neuron Processes
 Axons
– Branches along length are
infrequent
– Multiple branches at end of axon
 Terminal branches (telodendria)
– End in knobs called axon
terminals (also called end
bulbs or boutons)

Neuron Structure
Neuron Nerve
Processes:
impulse (action Action
potential)
–Potentials
Generated at the initial segment of the
axon
– Conducted along the axon
– Releases neurotransmitters at axon
terminals
– Neurotransmitters – excite or inhibit
neurons
– Neuron receives and sends signals
 Axons: Function

• Generate and
transmit action
potentials
• Secrete
neurotransmitters
from the axonal
terminals
• Whitish, fatty Myelin Sheath
(protein-lipid),
segmented sheath
around most long
axons
• It functions in:
– Protection of the axon
– Electrically insulating
fibers from one
another
– Increasing the speed of
nerve impulse
transmission
 Myelin
• CNS: oligodendroglia
or oligodendrocytes
Formation of myelin
sheath in cns.

• PNS: Schwann cells

~helps in the
 Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
 Formed by Schwann cells
 Develop during fetal period and in the first
year of postnatal life
 Schwann cells wrap in concentric layers
around the axon
– Cover the axon in a tightly packed coil of
membranes
 Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
 Nodes of Ranvier – gaps along axon
 Allow current exchange across axon
membrane
 Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
 Thick axons are myelinated
– Fast conduction velocity
 Thin axons are unmyelinated
– Slow conduction velocity
Myelin Sheaths in the PNS –
myelinated axon

Figure 12.15b
Myelin Sheaths in the PNS –
unmyelinated axons

Figure 12.15b
 Myelin Sheaths in the CNS
 Oligodendrocytes form
the myelin sheaths in
the CNS
– Have multiple processes
– Coil around several
different axons
 Nodes of Ranvier
• Gaps in the
myelin sheath
between
adjacent
Schwann cells
• They are the
sites where
collaterals can
emerge
• Saltatory
conduction
Myelin Sheath and Neurilemma: Formation
• Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS
• A Schwann cell:
– Envelopes an axon in a trough
– Encloses the axon with its plasma membrane
– Concentric layers of membrane make up the myelin
sheath
• Neurilemma – remaining nucleus and cytoplasm
of a Schwann cell
 Myelin
Sheath and
Neurilemma:
Formation

Figure 11.5a-d
 Unmyelinated Axons
• A Schwann cell surrounds nerve fibers but
coiling does not take place
• Schwann cells partially enclose 15 or more axons
 Axons of the CNS
• Both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers are
present
• Myelin sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes
• Nodes of Ranvier are widely spaced
• There is no neurilemma
Terminal Ending
 Synapses
 Site at which neurons communicate
 Signals pass across synapse in one direction
 Presynaptic neuron
– Conducts signal toward a synapse
 Postsynaptic neuron
– Transmits electrical activity away from a
synapse
Two Neurons Communicating
at a Synapse

Figure 12.6
 Classification of Neurons
 Structural Classification
 Functional Classification
 Structural Classification of
Neurons
Classification based on number of processes
– Multipolar
– Bipolar
– Unipolar (pseudounipolar)
By Neurite Shape or Number
(axons and dendrites)

Bipolar Unipolar Multi-polar Pyramidal

Multipolar Neurons

Possess more than two

processes
Numerous dendrites and
one axon

Figure 12.10a–c
Bipolar Neurons

Possess two processes

Rare neurons – found
in some special
sensory organs

Figure 12.10a–c
Unipolar (Pseudounipolar)
Neurons

Possess one single process

Start as bipolar neurons
during development

Figure 12.10a–c
Functional Classification of
Neurons
Classification based on direction of action
potential propagation
– Afferents –– from CNS to periphery
– Efferents from periphery to CNS
– Interneurons – within CNS
 Afferent neurons
 Afferent (sensory) neurons –
transmit impulses toward the CNS
– Virtually all are pseudounipolar neurons (some
true bipolar)
– Cell bodies in ganglia outside the CNS
 Short, single process divides into
– The central process – runs centrally into the
CNS
– The peripheral process – extends peripherally to
the receptors
Periphery CNS
Afferent Neurons

Axon terminals
Sensory receptors
 Functional Classification of
Neurons
 Sensory (afferent) neurons
 Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
 Cutaneous sense organs
 Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension

 Motor (efferent) neurons

 Carry impulses from the central nervous
system
 EfferentEfferent Neurons
(motor) neurons
– Carry impulses away from the CNS to effector
organs
– Most efferent neurons are multipolar
– Cell bodies are within the CNS
– Form junctions with effector cells
 Interneurons
 Interneurons (association neurons) – most
are multipolar
– Lie between afferent and efferent neurons
– Confined to the CNS
Neurons Classified by
Function

Figure 12.11
 Functional Classification of
Neurons

 Interneurons (association neurons)

 Found in neural pathways in the central
nervous system
 Connect sensory and motor neurons
 Variety of Interneurons
 Purkinje cell, stellate cell, granule cell, and
basket cell
– Located in the cerebellum
 Pyramidal cell – located in the cerebral
cortex
Variety of Interneurons
 By function (connections)

Sensory Motor

Interneuron
Neuron Classification
2. Classification and Function of Nerve
Fibers
•Function: conducting action potential

1)Characteristic

 insulation,
 two direction
 no fatigue
2). Conducting velocities of AP propagation:
0.5~120m/s.
The factors that influence the AP propagation:
~The diameter of NF: 0.2 -20 mm, The larger the
diameter is , The faster A.P. propagates.
~ Myelin sheath:
~Temperature:
3). The general classification of NF
 Electrical physiological classification (efferent
nerve): A, A, A, A; B, C.
 Morphological classification (afferent nerve): I,
II, III, IV.
Neuron Internal Structure
Common structures
Organelles – smaller parts of
the cell with specific funtions
Cell membrane – acts as a
gatekeeper
 Cytoplasm
Organelles are surrounded by a
jelly like substance
Primary component is water
 Nucleus
Largest and most identifiable
part of the cell
 Nucleus
Brain of the cell
Site of much of the
manipulation done in
biotechnology
 Nucleus
Controls activity of the cell
Round or oval structure
Typically found in the middle of
the cell
Appears darker than
surrounding material
 Nucleus
Surrounded by a membrane that
controls passage of materials in
and out of the area
 Nucleus
Contains DNA
DNA is located on
chromosomes
Most organisms are diploid –
have tow chromosomes for each
trait
 Other organelles
Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Golgibodies
Endoplasmic reticulum
 Cytoplasmic
Organelles
 Organelles are required for proper
cell function
 Ribosome – make proteins for
cellular use and communication
 May be attached to endoplasmic
reticulum
 Endomembrane System
Endomembrane system
-a series of membranes throughout the
cytoplasm
-divides cell into compartments where different
cellular functions occur
1. endoplasmic reticulum
2. Golgi apparatus
3. lysosomes
90
 Endoplasmic
reticulum
Layeredmembraneous
Make and transport proteins
 Endomembrane System
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
-membranes that create a network of
channels throughout the cytoplasm
-attachment of ribosomes to the membrane
gives a rough appearance
-synthesis of proteins to be secreted, sent to
lysosomes or plasma membrane
92
 Endomembrane System
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
-relatively few ribosomes attached
-functions:
-synthesis of membrane lipids
-calcium storage
-detoxification of foreign substances

93
Smooth & Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Smooth ER lacks
ribosomes &
makes proteins
USED In the cell
Rough ER has
ribosomes on its
surface & makes
proteins to
EXPORT
Endomembrane System

95

Lysosome
Contain digestive
enzymes
 Break down food and
worn out cell parts for
cells
 Programmed for cell
death (lyse & release
enzymes to break down
& recycle cell parts)
 Vacuole
Large organelle, without
specific shape
Store waste or raw materials
used in synthesis of proteins
 Golgi Bodies
 Stacks of flattened
sacs
 Have a shipping side
& a receiving side
 Receive & modify
proteins made by ER
 Transport vesicles
with modified proteins
pinch off the ends Transport
vesicle
 Golgi Bodies
Golgi apparatus
Similar to endo. Ret.
Look like a thick elastic band
that has been folded several
times
 Golgi Bodies
Adds modifications to
unfinished proteins
Makes lysosomes
101
 Lysosome
Small round
Store enzymes that break down
food into chemical compounds
Destroy cell organelles and the
cell itself
 Eukaryotic Cells
Ribosomes
-the site of protein synthesis in the cell
-composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins
-found within the cytosol of the cytoplasm
and attached to internal membranes

103
 Mitochondria
Energy factories
Rod shaped
Change food into molecules
that can be used for energy
 Mitochondria
Contain DNA
Can replicate themselves
 Mitochondria
-surrounded by 2 membranes
-smooth outer membrane
-folded inner membrane with layers called
cristae
-matrix is within the inner membrane
-intermembrane space is located between the
two membranes
-contain their own DNA
106
Mitochondria

107
 Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton
-network of protein fibers found in all
eukaryotic cells
-supports the shape of the cell
-keeps organelles in fixed locations
-helps move materials within the cell

108
 The soma
– Nucleus
 Gene expression
– Rough Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
 Major site for protein synthesis

– Ribosomes
– Smooth ER and Golgi Apparatus
 Sites for preparing/sorting proteins for
delivery to different cell regions
(trafficking) and regulating substances
– Mitochondria
 Site of cellular respiration (inhale and
exhale)
 Krebs cycle
 ATP- cell’s energy source
– Lysosomes
 Glial Cells (Supporting Cells)
 Six types of glial cells
– Four in the CNS
– Two in the PNS
 Provide supportive functions for neurons
 Cover nonsynaptic regions of the neurons
 Supporting Cells (Neuroglial
Cells) in the CNS
 Neuroglia – usually only refers to
supporting cells in the CNS, but can be used
for PNS
– Glial cells have branching processes and a
central cell body
– Outnumber neurons 10 to 1
– Make up half the mass of the brain
– Can divide throughout life
 Types
 Astrocytes
of Glial Cells in the
 Microglia CNS
 Ependymal Cells
 Oligodendrocytes
 Astrocytes
– Astrocytes – most abundant glial cell type
 Take up and release ions to control the environment

around neurons
 Recapture and recycle neurotransmitters

 Involved with synapse formation in developing

neural tissue
 Produce molecules necessary for neural growth

(BDTF)
 Propagate calcium signals that may be involved in

memory
 Astrocytes

Necessary for development and maintenance of

theblood brain barrier

Figure 12.12a
 Microglia
 Microglia – smallest and
least abundant
 Phagocytes –
the macrophages
of the CNS
 Engulf invading
microorganisms and dead
neurons
 Derived from blood cells
called monocytes

Figure 12.12b
 Ependymal Cells
– Ependymal cells
 Line the central cavity of the spinal cord and brain

 Bear cilia – help circulate the cerebrospinal fluid

 Oligodendrocytes
– Oligodendrocytes – have few branches
 Wrap their cell processes around axons in CNS

– Produce myelin sheaths

 Supporting Cells in the PNS
 Satellite cells – surround neuron cell bodies
within ganglia
 Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes) –
surround axons in the PNS
– Form myelin sheath around axons of the PNS

Figure 12.13
Oligodendrocytes
 Nerves
 Nerves – cordlike organs in the PNS
 Consists of numerous axons wrapped in
connective tissue
 Axon is surrounded by Schwann cells
 Nerves
Endoneurium – layer of
delicate connective tissue
surrounding the axon
 Nerve fascicles – groups of
axons bound into bundles
 Perineurium – connective tissue
wrapping surrounding a nerve
fascicle
 Epineurium – whole nerve is
surrounded by tough fibrous
sheath
 Simplified Design of the
Nervous
 Sensory neurons System
– located dorsally
– Cell bodies outside the CNS in sensory ganglia
– Central processes enter dorsal aspect of the spinal
cord
 Motor neurons – located ventrally
– Axons exit the ventral aspect of the spinal cord
 Interneurons – located centrally
– Provide communication between sensory and
motor neurons and between levels of the CNS
 Gray versus White Matter in
 Gray matter
the Central Nervous
– Cell bodies
•White matter
System
•Axons (myelin)
– Dendrites
– Synapses
Gray

Matter in the
Gray matter in the spinal cord
Spinal Cord
– H-shaped (butterfly) region – surrounds central cavity
– Dorsal half contains cell bodies of interneurons
– Ventral half contains cell bodies of motor neurons
– Cell bodies are clustered in the gray matter
 White Matter in the Spinal
 White matter in the spinal cord
Cord
– Located externally to the gray matter
– Contains no neuronal cell bodies, but millions of
axons
– Myelin sheath – white color
 Consists of axons running between different parts of
the CNS
 Tracts – bundles of axons traveling to similar
destinations
 CortexGray Matter
and nuclei in Brain
 White
Pathways, Matter
tracts in Brain
and commissures
 Types of Synapses
 Axodendritic
– Between axon terminals of one neuron and dendrites
of another
– Most common type of synapse
 Axosomatic
– Between axons and neuronal cell bodies
 Axoaxonic, dendrodendritic, and dendrosomatic
– Less common types of synapses
– Function not as well understood
Types of Synapses

Figure 12.7
 Synapses
 Axodendritic synapses – representative type
 Synaptic vesicles on presynaptic side
– Membrane-bound sacs containing neurotransmitters
– Mitochondria abundant in axon terminals
 Synaptic cleft separates the plasma membrane of
the two neurons
 Structure of a Synapses

PLAY Synapse

Figure 12.8a, b
Synapse
 4) Axoplasmic transport
The concept: Various organelles and materials must
be moved from the cell body, where they are made, to
the axon and its terminals in order to maintain the
structure and function of the cell axon.
 The mechanisms: Cytoskeletal filaments in the
axon and cell body, which serve as the rails along
which the transport occurs, are linked by proteins to
the substances and organelles being moved.
 Anterograde axoplasmic transport
~ fast axoplasmic transport: 410mm/day,
mitochondria, vesicles, secretory granule.
~ slow axoplasmic transport:1-12 mm/d, cytoskeletal
elements & soluble proteins
 Retrograde axoplasmic transport ： Axon
transport of certain materials are from the axon
terminals to the cell body. 205mm/d,
Fig. Axopasmic transport
 II Supporting Cells: Neuroglia

Ependymlal
Cell

Microglia

Oligod
endro
cyte Astrocyte

Martini, F. Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, Fig 12-6.

 Neuroglia of CNS

• Astrocytes
– Regulate extracellular brain fluid composition
– Promote tight junctions to form blood-brain barrier
• Ependymal Cells
– Line brain ventricles and spinal cord central canal
– Help form choroid plexuses that secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
 Neuroglia of CNS

• Microglia
– Specialized macrophages
• Oligodendrocytes
– Form myelin sheaths if surround axon
 Neuroglia of PNS

• Schwann cells or neurolemmocytes

– Wrap around portion of only one axon to form myelin sheath
• Satellite cells
– Surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia, provide support and
nutrients