Protein synthesis

Translation;
DNA: a gene Transcription: amino acids are
that codes for a the base assembled into
protein. The sequence is mRNA travels to polypeptides
code is written transferred to the ribosomes chain according
in a sequence of an mRNA to the
base pairs molecule. instructions in
mRNA
Export of macromolecules
• Cells produce lots of complex molecules for their own use or for
export from the cell. The cell products that are exported from the cell
include:
Digestive enzymes manufactured and secreted by cells in the gut
Hormones produced by endocrine cells
Antibodies produced by lymphocytes
Pheromones
The manufacture and export for these materials involves many cell organelles
Most of the products exported are proteins or modified proteins such as glycoproteins.
These involved in the production and export of proteins are outlined below
Amino acids

Enter the cell by facilitated diffusion or active transport. They

diffuse throughout the cytosol. Amino acids are picked up by
the nucleic acid molecules known as tRNA and transported to
the ribosomes. The tRNA molecule will help to build amino
acids
The instruction for protein building are contained in the
nucleus in molecules of DNA. DNA is copied as a
sequence of nucleotides into another molecule, mRNA.
The mRNA leaves the nucleus and travels to the
ribosomes in the cytosol.
 At the ribosomes, the mRNA instructs the
ribosomes to assemble a polypeptide molecule
with the correct order of amino acids
 The assembled polypeptide enter the rough ER. It is in the
ER that the bending and folding of the proteins occurs.
Some other modifications of proteins may also occur in the
rough ER. Carbohydrates may be added to proteins to
make glycoproteins
Small parts of the rough ER pinch off, becoming vesicles
for the transport of the protein or glycoprotein
 The vesicles travel to the Golgi body where it fuses
with the Golgi body membrane. In the Golgi body the
protein or the glycoprotein may be further modified
The finished product is again
packaged in a piece of the
membrane forming a vesicle.
The vesicle is transported to
the cell membrane where it
fuses with the membrane,
emptying its content into the
extracellular
fluid(exocytosis).
 enzymes
A catalyst is any chemical that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction
without itself being used up in the reaction
They are proteins, manufactured in the ribosomes
Highly specific – one enzyme catalyses one reaction
Enzyme activity
Active site
• All enzyme have an active site. This is the region of the protein
molecule that provides a site for the attachment of reactants. Enzyme
and substrate combine to form an enzyme – substrate complex.
• Enzymes are involved in synthesis reactions.
• The active site of the enzyme combines with two or more reactants,
aligning them in a such a way that combine to form the required
product. Synthesis reactions require an input of energy from ATP
• Enzymes are involved in the breakdown of molecules. In these
reactions the enzyme combines with the substrate and cause the
breakdown of the molecule.
• Energy is usually released in these reactions
• There are two ways in which the active site and the substrate can
interact.
• Lock and key method – active site is highly specific for a particular
substrate, which must be a compatible shape for binding to occur.
• Induced- fit model – enzyme and substrate can modify the shape of
the enzyme so that the substrate can be fully accommodated by the
enzyme.
Many enzymes lower the activation energy
required to get a reaction going.
Enzymes are sensitive to pH. They will only work in an optimum pH
range. Optimum pH differs for different enzymes, some work best in
alkaline environment as in the intestine, in acidic environment as in the
stomach and others at neutral pH. Enzymes denature if the pH varies
from optimum.
Enzymes are temperature sensitive. Most human enzymes work best at
temperatures from 35 to 40oC. The rate of any reaction is slowerat lower
temperatures simply because the molecule are moving more slowly and has less
chance of meeting and reacting. At a temperature of above 40 oC most enzymes
denature.
An exception to this is the enzymes pf bacteria that exists in hot environments.
• Enzyme action can be affected by the presence of other molecules
that may inhibit the actions of the enzyme.
• Inhibition of enzymes may be reversible or irreversible.
Competitive inhibition
• A competitive inhibitor is a molecule that competes with the
substrate for binding to the enzyme’s active site. It binds temporarily
with the active site, preventing the binding of enzyme and substrate.
Non-competitive inhibition
• A non-competitive inhibitor is a molecule that binds with the enzyme
in another part of the molecule, not at the active site. These inhibitors
alter the shape of the enzyme molecule and therefore affects the
ability of the active site to bind the substrate molecule
Denaturing
• The active site of an enzyme can be permanently altered by heat,
change in pH or the presence of other chemicals.
• The secondary and/or tertiary structure of the protein is lost.
 Binding of poison
• Many poisons are chemicals that bind irreversibly to enzymes,
stopping their function. Nerve gases and some heavy metals bind
irreversibly to parts of the enzyme molecules. Some antibiotics bind
irreversibly to bacterial enzymes
Drug design and enzymes
• Cells contain a multitude of enzymes, each structure fits it to a
particular function
• Once a final structure has been determined of an enzyme, it can be
used to develop drugs to inhibit enzyme activity through competitive
inhibition.
• If a critical protein enzyme is known in a pathogenic microorganism is
known, molecules can be tailored to act as inhibitors of this molecule.
coenzymes
• Some enzymes require another chemical component, attached to the
protein, to be active.
• These are called co-factors, some are inorganic ions; other are organic
molecules(known as co-enzymes)
• Co-enzymes are carrier molecules that transfer electrons or ions from
one reactant to another
• NADH, NADPH and FADH2 are important co-enzymes that transfer
electrons and ions in respiration and/or photosynthesis.
catalase
• Enzyme found in several organs and tissue, including the liver, where
its job is to speed up the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to
water and oxygen.
Chapter 3 questions
• 8, 9,10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,16, 17, 18