COMPUTER NETWORKS

( 07CS64 )

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 You never really learn much
from hearing yourself talk

George Clooney

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 Real listening is
a willingness to
let the other person
change you

Alan Alda
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 Let us

together

08.12.21 16:14 Confucius 5

 Introduction to Computer Networks
Need :
gathering, processing, storing,
transportation, distribution of
information accuracy, reliability, timeliness, delivery
on-line access to information spread
over a wide geographical area
Result :
merging of computers and communications
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Computer Network : a collection of inter
-connected autonomous computers
Distributed system : a software system
built on top of a network that makes the
collection of independent computers
appear / presented as a single coherent
system / model to users
Middleware : a layer of software built on
the operating system, is responsible for
implementing this model
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Model of a distributed system

data

provides set of
services required
data Logical by applications

provides abstraction
for applications, hides
complexity of network
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Uses of Computer Networks

Business Applications
Home Applications
Mobile Users
Social Issues

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Business Applications
A. Collect, extract, correlate information
about the entire enterprise
Share resources - hardware, software,
data, information (employee / customer /
supplier records, inventories, accounts..)
Server : Powerful computer, resource
storage / management
Client : Simple computer or user
(contextual) accessing data
end of tyranny of geography resource sharing
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Design Groups
Network Domain
Mgmt Mail File Name
System Server Server Server

DMZ

Firewall

Backbone Switch
Database Ext Database
Server 1 Storage Server 2
Remote Access Server
NETWORK OPS CENTRE
(NOC)
Manufacturing Groups

Modem Modem
OFC

OFC EPABX
dial-up lines
Modem Modem
Planning
Library Store OFC Departments
OFC
PC PC

Hub
OFC WorkGroup Switch
Optical Fibre Cable
UTP Cable

Example of an Enterprise Intranet

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Internet Applications
• world wide web : good GUI, viewing of
text / graphical objects, URL, http /
hypertext, hyperlink
• e-mail : easy & quick, accurate soft copies

• streaming audio / video : video - on -

demand, video - conferencing

• chat rooms

•08.12.21
resource
16:14
sharing : hardware, files, software12
 Introduction to Computer Networks
Business Applications
Client - Server setup

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Business Applications
B. Provide communication medium /
method (Ex. e-mail) between employees

C. Videoconferencing

D. Electronic business : ERP / CRM /

SCM, material procurement

E. Electronic commerce
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Home Applications
A. Access to remote information
From www --- arts, business,…, journals,
audio, video, chat, newsgroups,……
B. Peer- to - peer communication
Example - - - e-mail, VoIP

no fixed clients
and servers

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Home Applications

C.Entertainment
Video-on-demand, games, music, movies

D.Others
Shopping, financial management,
auctions, e-learning, telemedicine

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS

End of Class - 1
31.01.2011

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Mobile Users
Laptops ; PDAs, PANs ; m-commerce
Personal Area Network

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Wireless Networks and Mobile Computing

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Social Issues
news groups , bulletin boards with
unacceptable / offensive content
(mis)use of e-mail at workplace
government vs. citizen
use of cookies
anonymous content distribution, spam,
piracy
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Taxonomy of Networks
By Transmission Technology
By Scale
( Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification )

Transmission Technologies
Broadcast links
Point-to-point links
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Categorisation of Networks : by Technology
Broadcast Networks : Shared channel
Packets containing an address is
broadcast, ignored by all, but processed
by addressed (intended) recipient
Transmission to a subset of machines in
the total network is called multicasting
P-to-P Networks : between individual pairs
Multiple hops between a pair of machines
thro’ multiple routes; unicasting
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Categorisation of Networks : by Scale
______

(Computer + Mouse +
Keyboard + Printer)

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware

Local Area Networks

Metropolitan Area Networks
Wide Area Networks
Wireless Networks
Home Networks
Internetworks

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Local Area Networks resource sharing
information exchange

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware

Mesh LAN

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Star LAN

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware

Bus LAN Ring LAN

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Metropolitan Area Networks
Cable TV-based MAN

08.12.21 16:14 Another example is MANET 29

 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Wide Area Network
generally
owned by ISP

Routing algorithm
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Wireless Networks : System Interconnection

Bluetooth Wireless LAN

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Wireless LAN : Components

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Bluetooth Vs Wireless LAN
Bluetooth WLAN
range < 30 feet upto 200 feet
lower speed higher speed
components cheaper costlier
lower power consumption higher
less mature more mature
mostly chip mfrs. Proxim,3COM,
Cisco
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Home Networks
Computers (desktop PC, PDA, shared peripherals)
Entertainment (TV, DVD, VCR, camera, stereo, MP3)

Telecomm (telephone, cell phone, intercom, fax)

Appliances (microwave, fridge, clock, furnace,
airconditioner)
Telemetry (utility meter, burglar alarm, babycam)

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Home Networks : features
• easy installation of network and devices
• fool proof operation
• low price
• sufficient capacity for multimedia support
• longer stability of technology for scalability
• reliability and security
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Latency
propagation time + transmission time +
queuing time + processing time
propagation time = distance ÷ propagation speed
transmission time = message size ÷ bandwidth
queuing time = time needed for each intermediate
or end device to hold / buffer the message before
it can be processed

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Jitter
another performance issue related to delay
is a problem if different packets encounter
different delays
especially relevant when the application
using the data at the receiver site is time-
sensitive ( ex. multimedia)

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Example TB 1.3

The performance of a Client-Server

system is influenced by :
(a) bandwidth of the network (bps)
(b) latency (transit time)

Give an example of a network with :

(a) high bandwidth and high latency
(b) low bandwidth and low latency
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Example TB 1.3

(a) a transcontinental fiber link with

bandwidth of many Gbps

(b) a dial-up link connected over a short

distance

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Hardware
Example TB 1.4

Besides bandwidth and latency, what

other parameter is required to give a good
characterization of the QoS offered by a
network used for digitized voice traffic ?

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Introduction to Computer Networks
Example TB 1.5

In a network,
using copper & OFC media with speed of
propagation = (2/3) speed of light,
a Client and a Server are separated by
5000 Km ;
the traffic passes thro’ 50 Switches, each
with a switching time of 10 μsec ;
Is the switching time likely to significantly
impact
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the response between the two? 41
 Introduction to Computer Networks
Example TB 1.5

Total switching time = 500 μsec

Propagation delay
= (5000 Km) ÷ (2 x 105 Km / sec)
= 25 msec
Switching time = 2% of propagation delay
(not a major factor)
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Example TB 1.6

A client-server network uses a satellite

network
Height of satellite is 40,000 Km
What is the best-case delay in response to
a request ?

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Example TB 1.6

Speed of travel = 3 x 105 Km/sec

One-way propagation delay

= (4 x 104) ÷ (3 x 105) = 133.3 msec

Four-way delay = 533 msec

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 COMPUTER NETWORKS

End of Class - 2
31.01.2011

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 Introduction to Computer Networks

Example
Suppose a 100 Mbps point-to-point link is
being set up between Earth and a new
Lunar colony. The distance from the Moon
to the Earth is approximately 3,85,000 Km
(a) Calculate the RTT for the link.
→→

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 Introduction to Computer Networks

Example
(b) A camera on the lunar base takes
pictures of the Earth and saves them in
digital format to disk.
Suppose Mission Control on the Earth
wishes to download the most current
picture comprising 12 colour frames each
of size 1024 x 768 pixels, with each pixel
represented by 24 bits.
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 Introduction to Computer Networks

Example
What is the amount of time that will elapse
between when the request for the data
goes out and the transfer is finished ?

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Example

(a) RTT
= (2 x 385 x 106 m) ÷ (3 x 108 m / sec)
= 2.57 sec

(b) Size of image

= 1024 x 768 x 24 x 12 = 226492416 bits
Transfer time @ 100 Mbps
= 2.26 seconds →→
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Example
(b) …contd

One RTT is required before the picture

could begin arriving at the earth ;

Total elapsed time

= 2.57 + 2.26 = 4.83 seconds

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Architecture

Network design / architecture must be

able to accommodate changes in :

• underlying technologies upon which

they are based

• demands placed by the application

programs
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Architecture

Common functions are grouped into

related & manageable sets - “layers”

Functional layers for :

• data transportation
• routing of packets across multiple hops
• transfer of data frame from one physical
interface to another
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Architecture

End-to-end communication needs to be

segmented into layers

Interaction between layers is to be clearly

defined

Each layer is functionally independent

and can be modified based on changing
needs
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Architecture

Monolithic organisation is inflexible,

obsolescence-prone

Layered methodology for flexibility and

growth with changing requirements

Each layer carries out a specific set of

communication using its own protocol
and builds on the services of layer below it
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Architecture
OSI Architecture

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Architecture
OSI Architecture

headers and trailers are added to a block of data as it

moves down the layers
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Architecture
Internet or TCP / IP Architecture
Layers (not strict)

APP

TCP /
UDP

serves as focal point

IP

NW

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Software related to networks of today are
highly structured
Structuring techniques :
• Protocol Hierarchies
• Design Issues for the Layers
• Connection-Oriented and
Connectionless Services
• Service Primitives
• Relationship of Services to Protocols
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies

To reduce complexity, networks are

organized as a stack of layers in design

Each layer (a kind of virtual machine)

provides services to its higher layer
shielding that layer from the service
implementation details
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies
Layer n on one host converses with layer
n on another host using rules and
conventions called layer n protocol
Protocol is an agreement between parties
as to how communication is to proceed
Interface between two layers defines
operations and services made available
by lower layer to upper layer
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies

peers
layer n/n+1 interface (hardware / process)
defines operations
and services
layer n protocol
conversation

←virtual communication →

←← actual communication →→
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Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies
Peers : are entities comprising the
corresponding layers on different hosts
Data transfer : each layer passes data and
control information to the layer immediately
below until lowest layer
Actual communication : takes place thro’
physical medium
Network Architecture : is a set of layers
and protocols
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Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies
message protocol stack

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Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies
message M is produced by an application
process running in layer 5
M is given to layer 4
layer 4 puts a header H4 in front of M
header includes control information (eg.
sequence numbers) to allow layer 4 on the
destination host to deliver the messages
in the right order
header
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can also include sizes, times etc. 64
Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies
M + H4 is passed to layer 3
layer 3 may have to limit the size of
messages and may break up the incoming
messages to smaller units (M1 and M2)
layer 3 decides which outgoing lines to
use and passes packets to layer 2
layer 2 adds header and trailer, sends the
resulting unit to layer 1 for physical
transmission
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Example TB 1.18

Which of the OSI layers handles each of

the following ?
(a) dividing the transmitted bit streams
into frames
(b) determining which path through the
subnet to use

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Example TB 1.18

(a) data link layer

(b) network layer

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Example TB 1.19

Do frames encapsulate packets or do

packets encapsulate frame ?
Explain your answer.

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Example TB 1.19

Frames encapsulate packets.

When a packet arrives at the data link

layer, the header + data is used as the
data field of a frame.

The entire packet is put in an envelope

(the frame).
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 COMPUTER NETWORKS

End of Class - 3
01.02.2011

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Example TB 1.20

A system has a n-layer protocol hierarchy

Applications generate messages of length
M bytes
At each of the layers, an h-byte header is
added
What fraction of the network bandwidth is
occupied by headers?
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Example TB 1.20

Total no. of header bytes per message

= nh
The total message size = (M + nh)
Fraction of bandwidth occupied by the
headers
= nh ÷ (M + nh)
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Design issues for Layers
(a) addressing - need for :
every layer needs to identify senders and
receivers
networks have many computers, some of
these may have multiple processes to
specify destination

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Design issues for Layers
(b) error control - negotiated methods
are required for both sides to agree on
which of the many methods are being used
receiver must also be able to inform the
sender about the messages being received
with or without errors
sequence numbering for identifying and
reassembling at the receiver
what to do with out of order packets ?
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Design issues for Layers
(c) flow control
how to ensure that a fast sender does not
overwhelm a slow receiver ?
receiver gives a feedback to sender based
on receiver’s current situation or ….
agree upon a transmission rate a priori

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Design issues for Layers
(d) disassembling, transmitting, reassembling
(fragmentation) (defragmentation)
to handle the situation of - the inability of
all processes to handle arbitrarily long
messages

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Design issues for Layers
(e) multiplexing / de-multiplexing
use of same connection for multiple
unrelated conversations to …
reduce setting up of inconvenient or
expensive connections
(f) routing
to make use of multiple path between
source
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and destination 77
 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Connection-Oriented / Connectionless Services
Connection-oriented : telephone model
connection : establishment, use, release
acknowledgement, negotiations regarding
maximum message size, encoding, QoS

Connectionless : telegraph model

each message carries full destination
address, routed independent of others
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Connection-Oriented / Connectionless Services
Connection-Oriented : telephone model
Connectionless : telegraph model

Ack

Ack / file transfer

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Service primitives :
a service is formally specified by a set of
primitives - set of operations (system calls)
available to a user process to access a
service
set of operations depends on the service
system calls cause a trap to kernel mode
which hands over control of the machine
to the OS to send the necessary packets
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Service primitives for implementing a
simple connection-oriented service
(server)
(client)
(server)
(request for data)
(client)

movement of packets
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Service primitives :
(a) server executes LISTEN, indicates it is
prepared to accept incoming connections
(b) client process executes CONNECT to
establish connection with server;
parameter giving address of server
required
(c) OS sends a packet to the peer asking it
to connect (1); client process is suspended
till there is response
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Service primitives :
(d) packet received at the server is
processed by the server’s OS, sends back
acknowledgement (2)
(e) arrival of ack releases client; client and
server are both running and have a
connection that has been established
(f) server executes RECEIVE to prepare to
accept the first request
(g) client executes SEND to transmit its
request (3) and RECEIVE to get reply
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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Service primitives :
(h) server uses SEND to return the answer
to the client (4)
(i) client can send additional requests, if any
(j) when client has no more requests, it
can use DISCONNECT to terminate
connection(5)
(k) in response, server also issues
DISCONNECT (6)

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Services vs Protocols What vs How

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 Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Software
Services vs Protocols What vs How

Service is a set of primitives (operations)

that a lower layer provides to the
upper layer - defines what operations the
layer is prepared to perform
Protocol is a set of rules governing format
and meaning of messages and relates to
implementation of the service
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 COMPUTER NETWORKS

End of Class - 4
02.02.2011

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