Light and Illumination

Objectives: After completing this

module, you should be able to:
• Define light, discuss its properties, and give
the range of wavelengths for visible spectrum.
• Apply the relationship between frequencies
and wavelengths for optical waves.
• Define and apply the concepts of luminous
flux, luminous intensity, and illumination.
• Solve problems similar to those presented in
this module.
All objects are emitting
and absorbing EM radia-
tion. Consider a poker
placed in a fire.
As heating occurs, the 1
emitted EM waves have 2
higher energy and 3
eventually become visible. 4
First red . . . then white.
Light
Light may
may bebe defined
defined asas electromagnetic
electromagnetic radiation
radiation
that
that isis capable
capable of
of affecting
affecting the
the sense
sense of
of sight.
sight.
 Electromagnetic Waves
Wave Properties:
E
1. Waves travel at the
speed of light c.
B c
3 x 108 m/s 2. Perpendicular electric
and magnetic fields.
Electric E 3. Require no medium
Magnetic B for propagation.
 The Wavelengths of Light
The
The electromagnetic
electromagnetic spectrum
spectrum spreads
spreads over
over aa
tremendous
tremendous range
range of of frequencies
frequencies or or wavelengths.
wavelengths.
The wavelength isis related
The wavelength related to
to the frequency ff::
the frequency

cc == fc =
fc = 3 x 10 m/s
3 x 10 88
m/s

Those EM waves that are visible (light) have wave-

lengths that range from 0.00004 to 0.00007 cm.

Red,  Violet, 
0.00007 cm 0.00004 cm
Frequency wavelength
f (Hz) nm) The EM Spectrum
1024 A wavelength of one
1023 10-7
1022 Gamma rays 10-6 nanometer 1 nm is:
1021 10-4
1020
1019
10-3
10-1
11 nm
nm = 1 x 10-9 m
= 1 x 10 -9
m
1018 1
1017 X-rays 10
1016
1015
Ultraviolet 102
103
Visible Spectrum
1014
1013 Infrared rays
104 400 nm  700 nm
105
1012 106
1011 107
1010 Short Radio 108 Red 700 nm  Violet 400 nm
109 waves 109
108 1010
107 Broadcast Radio 1011
106
105 Long Radio
1012
1013
cc == fc =
fc = 3 x 10 m/s
3 x 10 88
m/s
104 waves
 Properties of Light
Any
Any study
study ofof the
the nature
nature of
of light
light must
must
explain
explain the
the following
following observed
observed properties:
properties:

• Rectilinear propagation: Light travels in

straight lines.
• Reflection: Light striking a smooth surface
turns back into the original medium.
• Refraction: Light bends when entering a
transparent medium.
 Photons and Light Rays
Light may be thought of as little bundles of waves
emitted in discrete packets called photons.

photons

The wave treatment uses rays to show

the direction of advancing wave fronts.
Light
Light rays
rays are
are
Light convenient
convenient forfor
ray describing
describing how
how
light
light behaves.
behaves.
 Light Rays and Shadows
A geometric analysis may be made of shadows
by tracing light rays from a point light source:

shadow
Point
source
screen

The
The dimensions
dimensions of
of the
the shadow
shadow can
can be
be found
found
by
by using
using geometry
geometry and
and known
known distances.
distances.
Example 2: The diameter of the ball is 4 cm and it is located 20
cm from the point light source. If the screen is 80 cm from the
source, what is the diameter of the shadow?

h 4 cm The
The ratio
ratio of
of
 shadow
shadow to to
80 cm 20 cm
the
the source
source
4 cm h isis same
same asas
that
that ofof ball
ball
20 cm
to
to source.
source.
80 cm
Therefore:
Therefore:

(4 cm)(80 cm)
h h = 16 cm
20 cm
Shadows of Extended Objects
penumbra

Extended
source

umbra

• The
The umbra
umbra is the
is the region
region where
where no light
no light reaches
the reaches
screen. the screen.
• The penumbra is the outer area where
only part of the light reaches the screen.
 The Sensitivity Curve
Human eyes are not
Sensitivity curve
equally sensitive to 555 nm
all colors.

Sensitivity
Eyes are most sensi-
400 nm
tive in the mid-range 700 nm
near = 555 nm.
Wavelength 

Yellow
Yellow light
light appears
appears brighter
brighter to
to
the
the eye
eye than
than does
does red
red light.
light.
40 W 40 W
Terms and units used in
illumination
Light
Amount of light radiated by a light source per second is called LF
 A Solid Angle: Steradians
Working
Working with
with luminous
luminous flux
flux requires
requires the
the use
use ofof aa
solid
solid angle
angle measure
measure called
called the
the steradian
steradian (sr).
(sr).

AA solid
solid angle
angle of of one
one
steradian
steradian ((11 sr sr)) isis R A
subtended
subtended at at the
the
center
center ofof aa sphere
sphere 
by
by an area AA equal
an area equal A
to The
to the
the square
square of of its
its  2
radius (( RR2).).
radius 2 Steradian R
5
 Luminous Flux
Luminous flux is the portion of total radiant power
that is capable of affecting the sense of sight.

Typically only about 10%

of the power (flux) emitted
from a light bulb falls in
the visible region.

The unit for luminous flux is the lumen which

will be given a quantitative definition later.
Amount of light radiated by a light source per second is called LF
 Luminous Intensity
The luminous intensity I for a light source
is the luminous flux per unit solid angle.

Luminous intensity:
 F F
I I
 
Unit is the candela (cd)

AA source
source having
having an
an intensity
intensity of
of one
one candela
candela
emits aa flux
emits flux of
of one
one lumen
lumen per
per steradian.
steradian.
Candela : one candela is defined as luminous intensity of 1/60 cm2 of the
laboratory device called black body radiator which is operated at the
temperature of solidification of platinum (a 60w bulb has approximate
intensity of 70 cd). The candle power or luminous intensity of a particular
lamp is expressed as certain number of candelas
Illumination; lux; footcandle:
When the luminous flux fall upon a surface, the surface is said
to be illuminated, the effect is called illumination. SI unit for
the illumination is lux and American unit is footcandle.

Lux: lux is illumination produced by one lumen uniformly

distributed over one square meter.

Footcandle: an incident flux density of one lumen per square

foot
One lux= 0.092 foot candle
One footcandle= 10.76 lux
Cd = candela directed to the point of interest
D= distance from the light source to the point of the interest

The light source is the point source which radiates equally in all
directions. The point of the interest on which the light fall is on a
surface normal to incident light.

The Inverse Square Relationship

Worked Example 1
A lamp has a luminous intensity of 1000 cd and acts as a point
source. Calculate the Illuminance produced on surface if the lamp
is at a distance of 4 m.
Solution
Given data I = 1000 cd
d=4m
E =?
We know that
E = I / d2
Substituting values

E = 1000/42

E = 62.5 lux
The cosine law or Lambert's cosine law

The inverse square law applies when the surface of the light is
perpendicular to the beam when beam of the light strikes the
surface at an angle, the flux density or lumens/m2 on the
inclined surface is reduced.
According to this law illumination at any point on the surface
is proportional to the angle of incidence (between normal and
the direction of luminous flux at that point )
the inverse square law and the cosine law are combined to read
as

E= cd cos /D2

where stands for angle of incidence. This formula is used in

many lighting calculations.
Worked Example 2
A lamp acts as a point source with an intensity of 1000 cd. It is fixed 3 m
above the centre of a circular table which has a radius of 1 m. Calculate
the Illuminance provided at the edge of the table ignoring reflected light.
Solution

Given data Intensity, I = 1000 cd

Vertical distance = 3 m

Distance between the source and edge of table = 1 m

 We want to find out Illuminance, E at the edge of the table.

To do so, we should first know the distance, d. If you consider this as a right
angle triangle with a base of 1m and perpendicular of 3m, d becomes the
hypotenuse and can be calculated by using the common triangle laws.
d2 = 3 2 + 1 2
d = 3.16 m
We know that cos θ = adjacent or base / hypotenuse
Cos θ = 1 / 3.16 = 0.316

We can now apply the Cosine law

E = I / d2 cos θ

Substituting values

E = (1000 / 3.162) x 0.316

E = (1000 / 9.986) x 0.316

E = 100.140 x 0.316

E = 31.64 lux Ans

 Illumination of a Surface
The illumination EE of
The illumination surface AA isis defined
of aa surface defined asas
the luminous
the luminous flux
flux per
per unit
unit area F/A)) in
area ((F/A in lumens
lumens
per square
per square meter
meter which
which isis renamed
renamed aa luxlux (lx).
(lx).

An illumination
An illumination of
of one
one lux
lux
Illumination, E
occurs when
occurs when aa flux
flux of
of one
one
lumen falls
lumen falls on
on an
an area
area ofof
one square
one square meter.
meter.  R

FF
EE  Unit: lux
Unit: lux (lx)
(lx) Area A
AA
TYPES OF LAMPS
 SOURCES OF LIGHT
Following are the different methods to produce light electrically:

1.By passing electric current through filament raising its temperature to

emit light.

2.By setting an arc between two electrodes producing light.

3.To maintain electric discharge through gas or vapour.

40
 Different Types of Lamps
1. Incandescent lamps:
The incandescent light bulb or lamp is a source of electric light that
works by incandescence, which is the emission of light caused by heating
the filament. They are made in an extremely wide range of sizes,
wattages, and voltages. An electric current passes through a thin filament,
heating it until it produces light. The enclosing glass bulb prevents the
oxygen in air from reaching the hot filament, which otherwise would be
destroyed rapidly by oxidation.
Incandescent bulbs are made in a wide range of sizes and voltages,
from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external regulating
equipment and have a low manufacturing cost, and work well on either
alternating current or direct current. As a result the incandescent lamp is
widely used in household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting,
such as table lamps, some car headlights and electric flashlight, and for
decorative and advertising lighting.

41
CONSTRUCTION
 

Incandescent light bulbs consist of a glass enclosure (bulb) which is

filled with an inert gas like argon to reduce evaporation of the filament. The
light bulb is supplied with electrical current by feed-through terminals or
wires embedded in the glass. Inside of the bulb is a filament of tungsten
wire, through which an electrical current is passed.
The current heats the filament to an extremely high temperature
(typically 2000 K to 3300 K depending on the filament type, shape, size,
and amount of current through it).
The heated filament emits light that approximates a black body in a
continuous spectrum. The useful part of the emitted energy is visible light,
but most energy is given off in the near-infrared wavelengths.
The wire filaments in incandescent lamps are made of tungsten.
Tungsten's melting point of about 3400 degrees centigrade is far above
light-producing temperatures. The lamp's service life depends on the
precision construction of its filament.

42
 Constructional Parts of Incandescent Lamp

1. Outline of Glass bulb

2. Low pressure inert gas (argon,
nitrogen, krypton, xenon)
3. Tungsten filament
4. Contact wire (goes out of stem)
5. Contact wire (goes into stem)
6. Support wires (one end embedded
in stem; conduct no current)
7. Stem (glass mount)
8. Contact wire (goes out of stem)
9. Cap (sleeve)
10. Insulation
43
11. Electrical contact
STRENGTHS
 

 Low initial cost

 Excellent color rendition

 Instant starting

 Inexpensive dimming capability

 Skin-flattering warm color

 Small size, which allows it to be used in point fixtures.

 Wide variety of shapes, sizes, colors and wattages are available

 Output unaffected by high or low ambient temperatures

 High brightness light source

 Variety of filament design possibilities offer optical control, accurate

distribution patterns and critical service operation
44
 FLUORESCENT LAMP
The two general types of fluorescent lamps include:

• Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL’s)

• Fluorescent tube and circling lamps
 A fluorescent lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses electricity to
excite mercury vapor. The excited mercury atoms produce short-wave
ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor to fluoresce, producing
visible light.
  

 A fluorescent lamp converts electrical power into useful light much

more efficiently than incandescent lamps. The luminous efficacy of a
compact fluorescent light bulb is about 60 lumens per watt, four times
the efficacy of a typical incandescent bulb.

 For conventional tube fluorescent lamps the fixture is more costly

because it requires an ballast to regulate the current through the lamp,
but the lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost.
45
CONSTRUCTION
 

The central element in a fluorescent lamp is a sealed glass tube. The

tube contains a small bit of mercury and an inert gas, typically argon,
kept under very low pressure.

The tube also contains a phosphor powder coated along the inside of
the glass. The tube has two electrodes, one at each end, which are
wired to an electrical circuit. The electrical circuit is connected to ac
supply.

46
WORKING PRINCIPLE
 

 When power is first applied to the circuit, a glow discharge will

appear over the electrodes in the starter lamp.
This glow discharge will heat the gas in the starter and cause the
bi-metallic contact to bend towards the other contact.
When the contacts touch, the two filaments of the fluorescent
lamp and the ballast will effectively be switched in series to the
supply voltage. The current through the filaments causes them to
heat up and emit electrons into the tube gas by thermionic
emission.
In the starter, the touching contacts have extinguished the glow
discharge, causing the gas to cool down again. The bi-metallic
contact also cools down and starts to move back.
Within a second or two the contacts separate, and the current
through the filaments is interrupted, leaving the full line voltage
applied between the filaments at the ends of the tube.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
 

 When power is first applied to the circuit, a glow discharge will

The inductive kick from the interruption of current through the
ballast provides the high voltage needed to start the lamp.
The starter additionally has a capacitor wired in parallel to its
gas-discharge tube, to prolong the contact life.
A: Fluorescent tube,

B: Power (+220
volts),

C: Starter,

D: Switch (bi-metallic
thermostat),
49
ADVANTAGES
 

Fluorescent lamps are more efficient than incandescent lamps. A typical

100 watt tungsten filament incandescent lamp may convert only 2% of its
power input to visible white light, whereas typical fluorescent lamps
convert about 22% of the power input to visible white light.
 

 Life: Typically a fluorescent lamp will last between 10 to 20 times as

long as an equivalent incandescent lamp when operated several hours
at a time. 
 Lower luminosity: Compared with an incandescent lamp, a
fluorescent tube is a more diffuse and physically larger light source. In
suitably designed lamps, light can be more evenly distributed without
point source of glare such as seen from an undiffused incandescent
filament.
 Lower heat: About two-thirds to three-quarters less heat is given off by
fluorescent lamps compared to an equivalent installation of
incandescent lamps. This greatly reduces the size, cost, and energy
consumption.
50
DISADVANTAGES
Frequent switching:
If the lamp is installed where it is frequently switched on and off, it will
age rapidly.
Under extreme conditions, its lifespan may be much shorter than a
cheap incandescent lamp.
Each start slightly erodes the electron-emitting surface of the
cathodes; when all the emission material is gone, the lamp cannot start
with the available ballast voltage.
Fixtures intended for flashing of lights (such as for advertising) will use
a ballast that maintains cathode temperature when the arc is off,
preserving the life of the lamp.

51
DISADVANTAGES
Health and safety issues:
 

If a fluorescent lamp is broken, a very small amount of mercury can

contaminate the surrounding environment.
The broken glass is usually considered a greater hazard than the
small amount of spilled mercury.
The EPA recommends airing out the location of a fluorescent tube
break and using wet paper towels to help pick up the broken glass and
fine particles.
Any glass and used towels should be disposed of in a sealed plastic
bag.

52
COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMP

H.W : DISCUSS WORKING OF CFL

53
LED LAMP
 Conventional light sources used to heat up elements so they started
to glow and produce light. This results in a relatively low lifespan
and an inefficient use of energy.

 LED lighting on the contrary doesn’t heat up a glowing element, but

rather sends electrons through a semi-conductor that emits
photons. This technology enables a LED light to have a very long
life span of up to 50,000 working hours (more than 10 years).
Furthermore, almost all energy is used to create light directly.

54
55
Operating mechanism

The most important part of a light emitting diode (LED) is the semi-
conductor chip located in the center of the bulb as shown at the right.
The chip has two regions separated by a junction. The p region is
dominated by positive electric charges, and the n region is dominated
by negative electric charges. The junction acts as a barrier to the flow
of electrons between the p and the n regions. Only when sufficient
voltage is applied to the semi-conductor chip, can the current flow, and
the electrons cross the junction into the p region.

56
 When sufficient voltage is applied to the chip across the leads of the
LED, electrons can move easily in only one direction across the
junction between the p and n regions.
 In the p region there are many more positive than negative charges.
 When a voltage is applied and the current starts to flow, electrons in
the n region have sufficient energy to move across the junction into the
p region.
 Each time an electron recombines with a positive charge, electric
potential energy is converted into electromagnetic energy.
 For each recombination of a negative and a positive charge, a
quantum of electromagnetic energy is emitted in the form of a photon
of light with a frequency characteristic of the semi-conductor material
(usually a combination of the chemical elements gallium, arsenic and
phosphorus).

57
 High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps

In an HID lamp, electricity arcs between two electrodes, creating an

intensely bright light. Mercury, sodium, or metal halide gases act as the
conductor.

The three most common types of HID lamps:

1. Mercury vapor lamps

2. Metal halide lamps
3. High-pressure sodium lamps.

58
 Working Mechanism

 The operation of high intensity discharge lamps is the same as that

of fluorescent lamps with the difference that the discharge occurs in
the presence of a gas at high pressure.

 In this case, the arc is able to vaporize the metallic elements

contained in the gas, releasing energy in the form of radiation which
is both ultraviolet and within the visible spectrum.

 The special type of bulb glass blocks the ultraviolet radiation and
allows only the visible radiation to pass through.
 The color characteristics and the efficiency of the lamp depend
upon the different metallic elements present in the gas, which are
struck by the arc.

59
 High intensity discharge
lamps require a suitably
sized controller and a
heating period which can
last some minutes before
the emission of the rated
light output.
 A momentary loss of power
makes the restarting of the
system and the heating
necessary.

60
 Calculation Of Number Of Light Points For Interior
Illumination

To illuminate a working plane, the level of illumination is decided by the

nature of work.

Total lumens required to illuminate an area A m2

 Total lumens required  E  A
IF 200 watt lamps are used.

Therefore number of lamps required, 5965

  30 ( say )
200
WORKED PROBLEM 4
A 250 volt lamp has a total flux of 3000 lumens and takes a current of 0.8
amps. calculate (1) lumens per watt, (2) M.S.C.P. per watt.
PROBLEM 5
A room 30m X 15m is to be illuminated by 15 lamps to give an average
illumination of 40 lumens/m2. The utilization factor is 1 / 4.2 and the
depreciation factor is 1.4. find the M.S.C.P of each lamp.
 Summary

Luminous intensity:
R A F
I
 
A Unit is the candela (cd)
The
 2
Steradian R
FF
flux: FF =
Total flux:
Total = 4I
4I EE  Unit: lux
Unit: lux (lx)
(lx)
AA
 Summary (Cont.)

II
Illumination, EE  22
Illumination, Illumination, E
RR

E/9
 R
9 m2 E/4
4 m2 E
1 m2
3m Area A
2m
1m