Contingency theories

1. Fiedler’s Contingency Model

The theory that effective groups depend on a proper
match between a leader’s style of interacting with
subordinates and the degree to which the situation
gives control and influence to the leader.

Least Preferred Co-Worker

(LPC) Questionnaire
An instrument that purports to
measure whether a person is task-
or relationship-oriented.
Situational favourableness, determined by three factors:
• 1. Leader-member relations - Degree to which a leader is
accepted and supported by the group members.
• 2. Task structure - Extent to which the task is structured and
defined, with clear goals and procedures.
• 3. Position power or the leader’s position - The ability of a
leader to control subordinates through reward and
punishment.
• High levels of these three factors give the most favourable
situation, low levels, the least favourable. Relationship-
motivated leaders are most effective in moderately favourable
situations. Task-motivated leaders are most effective at either
end of the scale.
• Fiedler suggests that it may be easier for leaders to change
their situation to achieve effectiveness, rather than change
their leadership style.
Findings from Fiedler Model
The Leadership Behaviours Continuum
• In what is regarded as a classic 1958 Harvard
Business Review article, ‘
How to Choose a Leadership Pattern‘, Robert
Tannenbaum and Warren H Schmidt set out a
range of leadership behaviours.  They set out
seven distinct stages on a continuum, which
vary from telling team members their decision,
through selling their idea and consulting on the
problem, to handing over decision-making.
A range of behaviours from the purely authoritarian ‘Manager makes a decision and
announces it’ through five intermediate styles, to the most democratic ‘Manager
allows group to make a decision’ within appropriate constraints.
Equally valuable is their assessment of how a manager can
decide how to lead and choose which of the styles will work
best.  They argue you must consider three forces:
• Forces in the manager
Your values and style, and your assessment of the risk
• Forces in the team-members
Your assessment of their readiness and enthusiasm to assume
responsibility
• Forces in the situation
Time pressure, the group’s effectiveness, organisational
culture

This article is a foundation for what is now known as ‘Situational

Leadership’, and the two trademarked models developed by
Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard.
 The Seven Leadership Behaviours
• 1. Manager makes the decision and announces it
This is a purely authoritarian style of leadership, with no
consideration given to other points of view. Most appropriate in a
crisis, the manager sets clear instructions and expectations.
• 2. Manager ‘sells’ their decision
The manager takes  the role of decision-maker but advocates
their decision, appealing to  benefits to the group. Valuable when
you need the group’s support.
• 3. Manager presents their decision and invites questions
The manager is still in control, but allows the group to explore the
ideas to better understand the decision. The manager answers to
their team, without committing to honour their opinions.
 The Seven Leadership Behaviours
• 4. Manager presents a tentative decision, subject to change
Now the group’s opinions can count. The manager identifies and resolves
the problem, but consults their team before making their own decision.
• 5. Manager presents the problem, gets suggestions and then makes a
decision
Still the manager retains ultimate decision-making authority. But now, they
share responsibility for finding the solution with the group, who can
influence the final decision.
• 6. Manager defines the limits within which the group makes the decision
Now decision-making sits with the team. The manager defines the
problem and sets boundaries within which the group can operate, which
may constrain the final decision.
• 7. Manager allows group to make decision, subject to organisational
constraints
The group has as much freedom as the manager is able to grant them. The
manager may help the group and again, commits to respect the decision
the group arrives at.
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Theory

Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)

A contingency theory that focuses on
followers’ readiness.
Unable and Unable but Able and Able and
Unwilling Willing Unwilling Willing

Follower
Follower readiness:
readiness:
ability
ability and
and willingness
willingness

Leader:
Leader: decreasing
decreasing need
need
for
for support
support and
and supervision
supervision

Directive High Task and Relationship Supportive Monitoring

Orientations Participative
 Leadership Styles and Follower
Readiness (Hersey and Blanchard)
High relationship High task and
and low task high relationship

High STYLE OF LEADER

S3 S2 High Moderate Low

S4 S1
R4 R3 R2 R1

Able Able Unable Unable

and and and and
willing unwilling willing unwilling
Low High
Task Behaviour Follower Readiness

Low relationship High task and

and low task low relationship
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=5-YXqlTq7IE
Leader–Member Exchange Theory
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Leaders create in-groups and out-groups,
and subordinates with in-group status will
have higher performance ratings, less
turnover, and greater job satisfaction.
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
 Path-Goal Theory
Path-Goal Theory
The theory that it is the
leader’s job to assist followers
in attaining their goals and to
provide them the necessary
direction and/or support to
ensure that their goals are
compatible with the overall
objectives of the group or
organization.
The Path-Goal Theory
 Path-Goal Leadership Styles
Directive
Informs subordinates of expectations, gives guidance,
shows how to do tasks.
Supportive
Friendly and approachable, shows concern for status,
well-being, and needs of subordinates.
Participative
Consults with subordinates, solicits suggestions, takes
suggestions into consideration.
Achievement-oriented
Sets challenging goals, expects subordinates to perform at
highest level, continuously seeks improvement in
performance, has confidence in highest motivations of
employees.
 Likert’s Four Systems
•Rensis Likert believed that the key to good leadership is
to establish a climate and system of management that
creates an effective organisation.

•System 1 - Exploitive Authoritative

•System 2 - Benevolent Authoritative
•System 3 - Consultative 
•System 4 - Participative 
AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP STYLE

Leader makes decisions without reference to anyone else

High degree of dependency on the leader

Can create de-motivation and alienation

of staff as it involves punishments

May be valuable in some types of business where decisions need

to be made quickly and decisively

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DEMOCRATIC OR PARTICIPATIVE
LEADERSHIP STYLE

Encourages decision
making &
participation
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 FREE – REIN/LASSIEZ-FAIRE LEADERSHIP
STYLE

Set their role as

Depend largely aiding the
Give operations of
on
subordinates subordinates by
subordinates to
Uses his power high degree of furnishing them
set their own
very little independence with information
goals & the & act primarily
in their
means of as a contact with
operations
achieving them group’s external
environment

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