Chapter 5

WRITING UP A
RESEARCH PAPER
 Getting to know the structure of a research -paper
 Writing the abstract
 Writing the introduction
 Writing the literature review
 Writing the methodology chapter
 Writing the results and discussion chapter
 Writing the conclusion
 Referencing the research paper: The APA
 Writing the appendices
 Using the checklists
5.1. THE STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PAPER

Title: The effect of instruction on the development of pragmatic competence in the EFL I
context: A study based on suggestions

•Abstract
• Acknowledgements
•Table of contents
•List of tables
• List of figures
•List of appendices
•List of abbreviations
 Introduction:
Background to the study
Justification for the study
Aims of the study and Research Questions
Significance of the study
Organisation of the report
 Chapter 1 Literature review: Pragmatics and
language learning
 Chapter 2 Literature review: Developing
pragmatics in instructional context
 Chapter 3: Classroom research on
pragmatics
 Chapter 4: Methodology
Participants
Instruments of data collection
Instructional treatment and materials
Data collection procedures and instructional sessions
Coding and analysis of data
 Chapter 5: Results and discussion
 Conclusion:
Summary
Theoretical implications
Pedagogical implications
Limitations of the study
Suggestions for further research
 Appendices
 References
5.2. WRITING THE ABSTRACT

5.2.1. The primary purpose of an abstract is to guide readers

 An abstract is a summary of a body of information.

 An abstract expresses the main claim and argument of a paper.
 In most disciplines, it never includes bibliographic citations.
 An abstract concisely highlights or reviews the major points covered along
with the content and scope of the writing.
 An abstract can also be a useful tool for writers to check that they have a
clear grasp of their thesis and argument
 An abstract says everything of central importance in a way that gives the
reader a clear overview of what is contained in the essay.
5.2.2. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE ABSTRACT ARE

 Background: A simple opening sentence or two placing the

work in context.
 Aims: One or two sentences giving the purpose of the
work.
 Method(s): One or two sentences explaining what was
done (described at length only if it is unusual).
 Results: One or two sentences indicating the main findings
(absolutely essential).
 Conclusions: One sentence giving the most important
consequence of the work (telling what the results mean).
5.2.3. QUESTIONS THAT AN ABSTRACT ANSWERS

 Why did you do this study or project?

 What did you do, and how?

 What did you find?

 What do your findings mean?

If the paper is about a new method the last two

questions might be changed to:
 What are the advantages of the method?

 How well does it work?

 An abstract should include the few things you
would like your reader to remember long after
the details of your paper may be forgotten.
5.2.4. QUALITIES OF A GOOD ABSTRACT

 Well developed paragraphs:

unified, coherent, concise, and able to stand alone
 Uses an introduction/body/conclusion structure:

presents the reposal purpose, results, conclusions,

and recommendations in that order
 Follows strictly the chronology of the report
 Provides logical connections (or transitions') between
the information included
 Adds no new information, but simply summarize the
report
 Is understandable to a wide audience
 Uses passive verbs to downplay the author and
emphasize the information
5.2.5. STEPS TO WRITING
EFFECTIVE ABSTRACTS

 Reread the research report with the goal of abstracting in

mind. 'Look specially for these main parts of the report:
purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and
recommendation.
 After you've finished rereading the report, write a rough

draft without looking back at what you're abstracting:

Don't merely copy key sentences from the report: you'll
put in too much or too little information. Don't rely on
the way material was phrased in the report: summarize
information in a new way.
5.2.6. DON'TS

 Do not commence with "this paper...", "this

report..." or similar. It is better to write about the
research than about the paper.
 Do not explain the sections or parts of the paper.
 Avoid sentences that end in "...is described", "...is
reported", "...is analyzed" or similar.
 Do not begin sentences with "it is suggested that..." "it is
believed that...", "it is felt that..."or similar. In every case,
the four words can be omitted without damaging the
essential message.
 I Do not repeat or rephrase the title.
 Do not refer in the abstract to information that is not in the
document.
 If possible, avoid trade names, acronyms, abbreviations,
or symbols. You would need to explain them, and that
takes too much room.
 The abstract should be about the research, not
about the act of writing.
5.2.7. WHERE TO FIND EXAMPLES OF ABSTRACTS:

 The best source of example abstracts is journal articles.

 Read the abstract, read the article:

Pick the best ones, the examples where the abstract makes the
article easier to read, and figure out how they do it.
 Not everyone writes good abstracts, even in refereed

journals, but the more abstracts you read, the easier it is to

spot the good ones.

 (Source; http://www.olemiss.edu/depts/writing
center/grabstract.html)
5.3. WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the introduction is to frame the paper for its readers. It
should provide:
 a brief description of the topic including any background that might

be necessary
 for the general reader to understand the research area

 a statement as to why the topic is worth researching or why it could

be found interesting
 a statement of the research objectives or hypothesis

 a statement of the method(s) and the scope of study

 an overview of the rest of the paper

 
Style:
 Organize your ideas, making one major point with each

paragraph.
 Present background information only as needed in order

support a position.
 The reader does not want to read everything you know about

a subject.
 State the hypothesis/objective precisely - do not oversimplify.

 As always, pay attention to spelling, clarity and

appropriateness of sentences and phrases.

5.4. WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

5.4.1. What is a literature review?

  A literature review discusses published
information in a particular subject area, and
sometimes information in a particular subject
area within a certain time period. Literature
reviews provide a solid background for a research
paper's investigation.
The purpose of reviewing existing information is to find
what is already known about the topic. This part should
answer four questions:
 What is the present state of knowledge regarding the

topic under consideration?

 How are the studies related to the one being proposed?

 What is the quality of the studies reviewed?

 How will the proposed study contribute to the existing

literature?
5.4.2. CONTENTS OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review may be:

 a single entity - an end in itself (essay)

 a preface to and rationale for engaging in
research (thesis chapter)
Some points to remember when writing a literature review:
 it is not a descriptive list of the information gathered

 it is not a summary of one piece of literature after another

 the review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g. essay question,

research objective, etc.)

 your purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge and ideas have

been established on a topic - what are the strengths and weaknesses

 organise the information gathered into sections that present themes.
 do not attempt to list all published material, but rather synthesise and

evaluate the literature according to your guiding concept

 
A literature review should contain: an introduction, a middle (body)
and conclusion.
 
In the Introduction
 define the topic, providing an appropriate context for reviewing the

literature
 establish writer's reasons (point of view) for reviewing the literature

 explain the organisation of the review (sequence)

 state what literature is and is not included (scope)

 
In the Body
 group the literature according to common themes

 provide insight into relationship between central

topic and a larger area (i.e,

 discipline)

 proceed from the general, wider view of the

research under review to the specific

problem
IN THE CONCLUSION
 summarise major contributions of the literature
 evaluate the current "state of the art" literature
reviewed
 point out major flaws, or gaps in research
 outline issues pertinent to future study
5.4.4. CHECKLIST

Ask yourself questions like these:

1.What is the specific problem, or question that my literature review helps to
define?
 2. What type of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking at issues of
theory?
Methodology? Policy? etc.
3. What is the scope of my literature review? What types of publications am I
using (e.g., journals, books, government documents, popular media)?
4. How good was my information seeking? Has my search been wide enough to
ensure I've found all the relevant material? Has it been narrow enough to
exclude irrelevant material? Is the number of sources I've used appropriate for
the length of my paper?
5. Have I critically analysed the literature I use?
Instead of just listing and summarizing items, do
I assess them, discussing strengths and
weaknesses?
6. Have I cited and discussed studies contrary to
my perspective?
7. Will the reader find my literature review
relevant, appropriate, and useful?
ASK YOURSELF QUESTIONS LIKE THESE ABOUT EACH BOOK OR ARTICLE YOU INCLUDE:

1. Has the author formulated a problem/issue?

2. Is it clearly defined? Is its significance (scope, severity, relevance)
clearly established?
3. Could the problem have been approached more effectively from another
perspective?
4. What is the author's research orientation (e.g., interpretive, critical
science, combination)?
5. What is the author's theoretical framework (e.g., psychological,
developmental, feminist)? 
6. What is the relationship between the theoretical and research
perspectives?
7. Has the author evaluated the literature relevant to the problem/issue?
Does the author include literature taking positions she or he does not
agree with?
8. In a research study, how good are the basic components of the study
design (e.g., population, intervention, and outcome)? How accurate
and valid are the measurements? Is the analysis of the data accurate
and relevant to the research question? Are the conclusions validly
based upon the data and analysis?
9. In material written for a popular readership, does the author use
appeals to emotion, one-sided examples, or rhetorically-charged
language and tone? Is there an objective basis to the reasoning, or is
the author merely "proving" what he or she already believes? 
10. How does the author structure the argument? Can you
"deconstruct" the flow of the argument to see whether
or where it breaks down logically (e.g., in establishing
cause-effect relationships)? 
11. In what ways does this book or article contribute to our
understanding of the problem under study, and in what
ways is it useful for practice? What are the strengths
and limitations?
12. How does this book or article relate to the specific
thesis or question I am developing'?
5.5. WRITING THE METHODOLOGY CHAPTER

 The purpose of this chapter is to outline the research methods us recognized

procedures have been followed in the study.

 There should be an explanation of the reason why particular methods were

chosen and how the research was conducted.

 For example, if a questionnaire survey was used, there should be an account of

how many questionnaires were handed out, how respondents were selected,
and what type of information was expected from the questionnaire.

 A convenient way of presenting the research methodology is to categorise all

information regarding the design as (1) participants, (2) instruments, and (3)
procedures, as appropriate.
5.5.1. PARTICIPANTS

 The first step in identifying the research participants in a study is

to describe the population of interests: is the study concerned with
college freshmen or pupils of elementary schools, and so forth?
 Then the researcher describes the procedure for drawing the
sample from the population. If random selection is not possible, it
should be explained why a particular procedure for sample
selection has been adopted and how the sample used does or does
not resemble
 the population of interest. A careful description of the participants
can help the reader to determine if, in the reader's view, the result
of the study can be generalized to the extent intended.
5.5.2. INSTRUMENTS

 All the instruments for data collection should be described in

details. If an instrument is one already established, the
evidence of its validity for the purpose of the study should be
reported.
 In cases where the instruments are developed by the researcher,
it is necessary to outline the procedure in developing them.
 This outline should include the steps taken to obtain validity
and reliability data on these instruments. If the description of
the reliability and validity procedures results in so much detail
that it interrupts the continuity of the report, it is preferable to
include this material in an appendix rather than in the text.
5.5.3. PROCEDURES

 In the procedure section the researcher describes the way in which the
research is carried out.
 A careful description of the procedures for carrying out the research is
a basic requirement of any research paper. In survey research the
writing of this section is relatively simple because the procedure
merely involves sending out a questionnaire to be Bled out and
returned or conducting an interview.
 However, all the steps - that is, preparing the questionnaire or
interview schedule, training the interviewers, giving them directions
as how to approach the participants and how to perform the interview
- should be listed and explained.
5.6. WRITING THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CHAPTER

5.6.1. Writing a results section

The purpose of a results section is to present and
illustrate your findings. Make this section a
completely objective report of the results, and
save all interpretation for the discussion.
CONTENT:

 Summarize your findings in text and illustrate them, if

appropriate, with figures and tables.
 In text, describe each of your results, pointing the reader
to observations that are most relevant.
 Provide a context, such as by describing the question that
was addressed by making J a particular observation.
 Analyze your data, then prepare the analyzed (converted)
data in the form of a \ figure (graph), table, or in text form.
WHAT TO AVOID

 Do not discuss or interpret your results, report

background information, or attempt to explain anything.
 Never include raw data or intermediate calculations in a
research paper.
 Do not present the same data more than once.
 Text should complement any figures or tables, not repeat
the same information.
 Do not confuse figures with tables - there is a difference.
STYLE

 As always, use past tense when you refer to your

results, and put everything in a logical order.
 In text, refer to each figure as "figure 1," "figure 2," etc.;
number your tables as well
 Place figures and tables, properly numbered, in order at
the end of the report (clearly distinguish them from any
other material such as raw data, standard curves, etc.)
 If you prefer, you may place your figures and tables
appropriately within the text d your results section.
 Either place figures and tables within the text of the result, or include
them in the back of the report - do one or the other
 If you place figures and tables at the end of the report, make sure they
are clearly distinguished from any attached appendix materials, such as
raw data
 Regardless of placement, each figure must be numbered consecutively
and complete with caption (caption goes under the figure)
 Regardless of placement, each table must be titled, numbered
consecutively and complete with heading (title with description goes
above the table)
 Each figure and table must be sufficiently complete that it could stand
on its own, separate from text
5.6.2. WRITING A DISCUSSION SECTION

 The objective here is to provide an interpretation

of your results and support for all of your
conclusions, using evidence from your research
and generally accepted knowledge, if appropriate.
 The significance of findings should be clearly
described.
CONTENT

 Interpret your data in the discussion in appropriate depth.

 This means that when you explain a phenomenon you
must describe mechanisms that may account for the
observation.
 If your results differ from your expectations, explain why
that may have happened. If your results agree, then
describe the theory that the evidence supported.
 It is never appropriate to simply state that the data agreed
with expectations, and let it drop at that.
 Decide if each hypothesis is supported, rejected, or if you
cannot make a decision with confidence. Do not simply
dismiss a study or part of a study as "inconclusive."
 Research papers are not accepted if the work is incomplete.
Draw what conclusions you can based upon the results that
you have, and treat the study as a finished work.
 You may suggest future directions, such as how the
research might be modified to accomplish another
objective.
 Explain all of your observations as much as possible, focusing on
mechanisms.
 Decide if the study design adequately addressed the hypothesis,
and whether or not it was properly controlled.
 Try to offer alternative explanations if reasonable alternatives
exist.
 One study will not answer an overall question, so keeping the big
picture in mind, where do you go next? The best studies open up
new avenues of research. What questions remain?
 Recommendations for specific papers will provide additional
suggestions.
 When you refer to information, distinguish data
generated by your own studies from published
information or from information obtained from
other students (verb tense is an important tool for
accomplishing that purpose).
 Refer to work done by specific individuals
(including yourself) in past tense.
 Refer to generally accepted facts and principles in present
tense. For example, "Doofus, in a 1989 survey, found that
anemia in basset hounds zoos correlated with advanced age.
Anemia is a condition in which there is insufficient
hemoglobin in the blood."
 The biggest mistake that students make in discussions is to
present a superficial interpretation that more or less re-states
the results. It is necessary to suggest why results came out as
they did, focusing on the mechanisms behind the observations.
 (Source:
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/tools/report/reportfonn.html)
5.7. WRITING THE CONCLUSION

 The key points of the whole study should be

summarized in this part in a logical order. The
'Results' and 'Discussion' should be the focus of this
part. This section should also mention briefly the
limitations of the study and include any
recommendations or suggestions for further studies.
 (Source: http://www.ldeo.coliimbia.edu/~martins/sen
sem/thesis org.html)