GEOLOGIC HAZARDS

SUBSIDENCE AND
COLLAPSIBLE SOIL
BY:
-DONAYRE, CLARITO F.
-GONGOB, GRACE IRENE C.
 GEOLOGIC HAZARD

 A geologic hazard is an extreme natural events in

the crust of the earth that pose a threat to life and
property, for example, floods, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, tsunamis (tidal waves) and landslides.
FLOODS
• natural process

• river systems

• heavy rain or coastal storms

• increase in water level

• the product of other natural

processes: hurricanes, volcanic
eruptions, etc.

•human influence
EARTHQUAKES
• natural process

• earthquake is a shaking and

vibration on the surface of the
earth.

• “seismic waves” are generated

• can cause massive damage

and destruction.

• cannot be predicted
TSUNAMI
• natural process

• tsunamis are series of

enormous waves created by an
underwater disturbance.

• in the coastline, large

destructive waves.

• can cause local devastation

and export tsunami destruction
thousand of miles away.
LANDSLIDE
• natural process

• landslides are defined as the

downward and outward
movement of slope-forming
materials.

• occur throughout the world,

under all climatic conditions and
in all terrains.

• classified into different types

• effects of landslide can be
lessened.
VOLCANOES
• natural process

• a volcano is an opening in the

earth’s crust.

• volcanic eruptios can be

effusive or explosive

•Volcanoes can be dangerous

• we can predict volcanic

eruptions
SUBSIDENCE
 The sinking, collapse or downward settling of the earths
surface.

6 CATEGORIES OF SUBSIDENCE:
• Underground Mining
• Cavern Collapse
• Ground Water / Oil Withdrawal
• Sediment Loading
• Earthquake Movement
• Magma Chamber Deflation
CLASSIFICATION OF THEORIES OF
SUBSIDENCE:

THEORIES OF SUBSIDENCE:
 Descriptive theories
• Trough subsidence
• Factors influencing subsidence

 Continum mechanics theories:

• Elastic theory
• Elastic-plastic theory
DESCRIPTIVE THEORIES
Observation of surfaces above the excavated
under ground openings form the basis of
deductions with respects to ground movements
between the surfaces & under ground openings.

Wider applicability than continum mechanics

theories.

Bulk of current understanding about subsidence

characteristics derives from these theories.
TROUGH SUBSIDENCE
oThis type of subsidence is usually associated with the extraction
of thin, horizontal or flat-dipping ore bodies overlain by weak,
non-brittle sedimentary strata.

oSurfaces directly above excavated openings usually subside in a

trough

oThe area of which extends beyond the limits of the excavated

underground opening

oTrough subsidence is symmetrical about mining geometry with

maximum subsidence at the midspan of opening
Trough Subsidence
Factors Influencing Subsidence:
  Angle of draw
-It is the angle between the vertical & the line joining edge of excavation with the
point at the surface where subsidence diminishes to zero.
-It depends on depth, seam thickness, & local geology, especially major faults or
fracture planes or the location of self-supporting strata above the coal seam 

 Seam thickness
-Affects the magnitude of surface subsidence 
- If all other factors are same, then thicker the seam, the larger is the surface
subsidence, because a larger void is left to be filled
Factors Influencing Subsidence:
 Width & Depth Of Opening:
- Width & depth of an U/G opening together determine the critical area or area of influence

- If lines inclined at an angle equal to angle of draw are drawn from a point on the surface above an
U/G excavation and if they intersect the coal seam at two points then the distance between these
two points is known as critical width

- As the depth increases critical width also increases

-If the opening is wider than the critical width, an area in the mid span will experience the max.
possible subsidence. The width of the opening is then a supercritical width

- If the opening is narrower than critical width, the max. subsidence occurs at the mid span but is
less than the max. possible subsidence for the seam. The width of the opening is then called sub-
critical width

-An opening of a particular width is a supercritical width at a shallow depth but becomes critical and
then sub-critical at greater depths. Therefore, depth & width both must be specified for
determining amount of subsidence
Factors Influencing Subsidence:
Type of supports
- Amount of convergence of U/G openings depends on type of
supports used, which in turn determines the amount of roof materials
to be caved or indirectly the magnitude of subsidence
Factors Influencing Subsidence:

 Subsidence is max. at
the point normal to the
center of the opening,
rather than directly
over the center of the
opening as in case of
horizontal seams
Factors Influencing Subsidence:
 Time
• Both instantaneous & time dependent subsidence are associated
with U/G excavations
• Time-dependent portion is much less than the instantaneous one. It
is also known as residual subsidence 
• Residual subsidence may start after the active (instantaneous)
subsidence is completed or it may occur simultaneously with
instantaneous subsidence 
• Amount of residual subsidence is proportional to rate of subsidence
of surface points 
• Residual subsidence can amount to 9% of total subsidence if face is
stopped within the critical width of the surface point & reduces to 2-
3% if the face has passed the critical width (U.K. National Coal Board)
CONTINUM MECHANICS THEORY
Used to derive information on stresses & strains

 Difficult to apply because of complex variation

of geological structures from area to area, the exact boundary

conditions & material properties
ELASTIC THEORY
- It was given by D.S. Berry in 1964
- Elastic ground movement for three kinds of U/G excavation closure development were
analyzed
1.  Non-closure (Floor & roof never met)
2.  Partial closure 
3. Complete closure
- Excavations were treated as displacement discontinuities by using a complex potential
method for partial closure
- Results were then extended to non-closure & complete closure as limits 
- It was found that surface subsidence calculated for isotropic material was smaller than
actual measurements 
- Therefore, theory for transversely isotropic ground was developed in two dimensions
ELASTIC- PLASTIC THEORY
- This was given by Dahl & Choi who found that mine subsidence is essentially time
independent & that measured surface strains frequently exceed the elastic limit.

- Therefore, they suggested a model which behaves in an elastic-elastoplastic manner .

- This model uses three-dimensional finite element method, to reproduce subsidence

profiles from the subsidence survey 
Subsidence Measurement Techniques
o Measurement of surface movement 
o Establishing surveying stations
o Horizontal movement
o Vertical movement
o Slope
o Measurement of subsurface strata movement
o U/G borehole technique
o Surface borehole technique
COLLAPSIBLE SOIL
 Collapsible soils are soils that compact and collapse after they
get wet.

 The soil particles are originally loosely packed and barely touch
each other before moisture soaks into the ground.

 As water is added to the soil in quantity and moves downward,

the water wets the contacts between soil particles and allows
them to slip past each other to become more tightly packed. Also
affects clay between other soil particles so that it first expands,
and then collapses like a house of cards.

"hydrocompactive soils"
 The amount of collapse depends on how loosely the particles are
packed originally and the thickness of the soil that becomes
wetted.

The binding agents of the collapsible soil structure can be very

strong while the soil is in a dry state, and may possess high bearing
capacities able to support heavy structures. When water is
introduced, the soil fabric’s skeletal structure quickly weakens and
fails. Collapse rate is also dependent on saturation rate of the soil.
Because the introduction of water causes this collapse, the terms
hydrocompactive and hydrocompressible are also used to describe
these soils.
There are other types of soil collapse. One is piping and formation
of soil caverns in dispersive and erodible soils, caused by active
suspension and removal of soil particles by flowing water. Another
is soil with a high evaporite-mineral or gypsum content, where
actual dissolving of mineral grains and the cementation matrix (soil
mass loss) can result in volume loss and settlement at the surface.
Continued settlement in collapsible soil dropped new town home driveway to a
level where vehicles are unable to enter garage. Note levelling slab of concrete
on garage floor from previous repair.

 Photo credit: Jon White for the CGS

 Structures and underground utilities founded on these types
of soils can suffer from distress because of differential
settlement. Because of the differential between two rates of
settlement, strain can build until the structure bends, distorts,
or breaks.
The shifting and settling of the structure can be seen in a
number of ways:

1. settlement, cracking, and tilting of concrete slabs and foundations;

2. displacement and cracking in door jams, window frames, and interior

walls

3. offset cracking and separation in rigid walls such brick, cinderblock, and
mortared rock. The damage can be similar to that caused by expansive or
swelling soil. In fact, where both types of soils occur, usually in complex
interlaying, it becomes difficult to initially determine what soil property is
the cause of damage.
There are available engineering techniques to mitigate collapsible
soils. They are grouped broadly into

1) ground modifications that mitigate the collapse potential of the

soil,

2) structural reinforcement techniques, and

3) deeper foundations to transfer building loads through the

collapsible soil horizon to a competent soil or rock layer below.
The most important thing to remember is that collapsible soils are
dry in their natural state, and it is important that they remain so
where structures have already been constructed without mitigation.
Water and drainage management is always important for new-site
development but is even more so with maintenance of existing
structures. Certain restrictions for lawn-irrigation systems are also
recommended. To reduce possible water introduction into the
subsoil, xeriscape landscaping, requiring lower water usage, is
suggested.
THANK
YOU!