Ergonomics

Pallavi Wakode
• The word “ergonomics” has greek origin.

• The word “ergon” means work and “nomos” means

laws.

• So, ergonomics means “laws of work” to fit the task

to the person.
Defination:
The branch of science and technology that includes
what is known and theorized about human
behavioral and biological characteristics that can be
validly applied to the specification, design, evaluation
and maintenance of products and systems to
enhance safe, effective and satisfying use by
individuals groups and organizations.
 History of Ergonomics
• Industrial revolution is a complex web of economics
and human knowledge each of which play a
significant role in development of ergonomics.
• Kantowitz classifies four levels of technology
• Pushing / Pulling a cart, lifting/Carrying, using a
shovel and using a manual hand tool are examples of
first level of Technology
• Machine supplies the primary power while human
retains control. Operating punch press, powered nut
runner or weilding are examples of second level of
technologies.
• When machine supplies both power and information
but the human still controls the operation is third
level of technology.

• Paper making plant

• The cockpit of the modern airplane while on
autopilot is example of fourth and highest level of
technology.
 Components of ergonomics

 
 Worksite related
 Work related
 Worker related
 Principles: Ergonomics

• Workplace Design
• Equipment Design
• Anthropometrics
• Physiology of body movement
• Instrumentation for occupational ergonomics
• Biomechanical aspects of body movement
• Psychophysical methodology
• Physical work capacity
• Worker participation
• Occupational heat stress
 Workplace Design
• Services needed by several people should be placed in a
central location

• Lines of sight and other visual requirements for

operations should be kept clear

• Postural flexibility and change should be provided

3 major categories of workplace:

Sitting- in situations when all items needed in the short-

term task cycle can be easily supplied and handled
within the seated workplace
• No large forces are required (>4.5kgs)
• Writing tasks are done for the majority of the shift
Standing- if the workplace does not have knee
clearance for a seated operation
• Objects weighing >4.5kgs are handled
• High, low or extended reaches are frequently
required
• Downward forces must be exerted, as in wrapping
and packing operations
Sit/Stand- combination of both
• Duration of each task should be assessed and those
that make up the majority of the work time should
take precedence in establishing the type of
workplace used
 Equipment Design
• The design of the equipment can have profound effects
on the safety and performance of people at work. There
are 4 main aspects of equipment design that should be
considered by the ergonomists:

• Overall considerations
(such as physical demands and safety)
• Maintainability
• Design of the displays
• Design of controls
 Anthropometrics:
• It is the subject which deals with the measurements of
the human external body dimensions in static and
dynamic conditions.

• These include measurements of body parts (linked

segments), their strength, speed and their ranges of
motion.
• Static anthropometry is external human body
dimensional measurements taken when a person is
placed in a static position or posture, e.g. height,
weight, length, circumference.

• Dynamic anthropometry is dimensional

measurements of the human body with various
movements in different adopted postures which the
work context demands.
 Implications of anthropometrics in
ergonomics

• Designs without due consideration to the body dimensional

requirements of intended users do not serve their purpose and
have less user acceptance value. E.g. cots for patients too high
in some hospitals.

• Wrongly designed systems induce improper posture leading to

operational uneasiness and musculoskeletal pain and disorders.
E.g. tall stalking racks, overhead handle to hold on to in buses.

• Improper clearance dimensions in corridors or passageways

causes psychological discomfort.
• Hence, the design of a workplace or tool should be based
on factors like the user’s age, Gender, geographical
region, occupation and postural considerations.

• Relevant anthropometric supports, along with the

intended users’ behavioral pattern, should be seen
together while designing.

• E.g- head and face dimensions used primarily in the

design of headgear, optical and auditory devices.
 Physiology of body movement:
The knowledge about this is important for analysis of
physical work.
The potential problem is excessive stress on the
cardiovascular and muscular system.
 Implications:

• Excessive stress can result from a high metabolic

requirement on a normal person.

• Heart rate is a good estimator of metabolic rate. It

can be measured subjectively by asking to rate
“perceived exertion” (using Borg’s scale).
• The cardiovascular limits for heavy work are given in
terms of aerobic capacity, and usually expressed in terms
of oxygen capacity (VO2 max).

• e.g. for an 8 hr shift, heart rate should not average over

110 beats/min and for parts of a shift, heart rate should
not average over 130 beats/min.

• So, the goal is to design jobs so that “everyone” can do

and requires knowledge concerning the energy
requirements of various tasks and the ability of people
to do them.
 Biomechanics:
• It deals with the principles of physics as they relate to
understanding forces and their effects on the human body.

• These forces include gravity, external loads, and resistance,

and the internal forces acting within our skeleton, muscles,
and other tissues to accomplish intended or work
activities.

• Work activities can range from being immobile and static

to being very active and dynamic. Neither extreme is
desirable.
 Biomechanics of Posture:
• Primary consideration is the distribution of the
supporting force over the contact area, where pressure is
equal to force per unit area. Not all body tissues do
equally well at accepting pressure. E.g. fat pad of the
heel and Ischial Tuberosity accepts high level of pressure
whereas coccyx of spine and tip of elbow quickly
becomes painful when exposed to high pressures.

• Force of gravity can also be opposed vertically from

above. E.g. arm passively hanging from one side when
downward pull of gravity on forearm, hand and shoulder
is opposed by structures in and around elbow and
shoulder joint.
• Governing principle for all static postures is that
summation of all the forces in any one direction must
be zero. There can be any number of forces acting on
the segment, but they must all add up to zero, with
the upward forces equaling the downward.

• Keep everything in easy reach (reach envelope) to

avoid twisting and bending
 Biomechanics of Holding:
• From the point of view of biomechanical analysis,
external loads represent additional forces and
moments acting under same principles as posture.

• Size and shape of objects also have important

biomechanical consequences. E.g. if two boxes are of
same weight but the dimensions are different, then
handling the box which is larger or wider will cause
increase in the forward bending (clockwise) moment
of the load and hence increased muscle effort from the
controlling lumbar Paraspinal muscles.
• The angle at which a muscle pulls on a skeletal
segment varies as these angle of the joint it crosses
changes. When the pull of the muscle is nearly
perpendicular to the segment , the muscle produces
the maximum moment for the effort exerted. As the
angle becomes less perpendicular, the moment
produced for any muscle force is reduced
(trigonometric function of the angle of pull).

• So, the force has two components, one perpendicular

(external moment) to the segment and other parallel
(compression or tension on the joint).
 Biomechanics of Gripping:
• It is biomechanics of holding by the hands and has similar
considerations. The size of an object influences how it is
grasped and how much grip force can be developed.

• Two basic types- Power and Pinch

• Power grip is used when object grasped is 3cm or larger
and includes cylindrical grip, spherical grip, and
hook/palmar grip.
• The different types of pinch grip include- tip pinch(e.g. to
hold a bead), chuck pinch(holding pencils), and lateral
pinch(key pinch).
 Psychophysical methodology:

• This approach helps to find the relationship between work

factors and the perception of physical stress, exertion,
fatigue and discomfort of the body.

• This approach allows for simultaneous evaluation of the

combined effects of different physical stressors.
 Implications:
• Used mainly to evaluate manual material handling tasks,
upper extremity intensive tasks and other manual work
and the results can be readily applied as guidelines in the
workplace.

• Psychophysical methodologies serve as a more sensitive

indicator for the risk of development of use-related
musculoskeletal injuries as localized muscle fatigue may be
an early symptom.

• Hence, can provide guidance in the analysis and design of

repetitive manual work like grocery stores.
• Visual analogue scale can be used to measure physical stress.
 
• For a normal 8 hr workday
Easiest Hardest
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Work Work

 
• Can determine maximum acceptable weights and forces for
various manual materials handling tasks.
• Hence, these methods are consistent, reproducible, quick,
inexpensive, and convenient way to assess the degree of
physical strain on the human body.
 Physical work capacity:
• Knowing PWC plays a central role to maintain a balance between
job stress requirements and PWC.

• If PWC exceeds, the worker is at risk of overexertion and if job

stress requirements are less than PWC, the worker is underutilized
and there is a productivity loss.

• Hence, PWC is the functional capacity of an individual to perform

a certain task that requires muscular activity over a period of
time.

• Components of PWC are muscular strength, endurance, CV

endurance, joint flexibility, etc.
 Implications:
• In physical ergonomics job design.

• To identify and analyze high risk operations, then quantify stress

requirements in terms of a measurable output.
• E.g. maximum load handled on the job for infrequent lifting
tasks. Determine the physical work capacity based on
physiological, biomechanical, psychophysical criteria.
• E.g. isometric strength measured for a given job position. Finally,
calculate the ergonomic index as the ratio of stress requirements
and physical work capacity and set the desired ergonomic index
range in the workplace. It is a unitless measure.
• In ergonomic task analysis.
• e.g. use of static strength measurements to predict
future risk of low back injuries posed by infrequently
performed manual handling tasks.
• Pre-employment screening and placement
 Worker Participation:
• It is the movement of decision making, information,
knowledge and skill, and rewards to the lower levels of an
organization.

• An employee’s work motivation and job satisfaction are

increased not only by added pay but also by the
opportunities to provide input into decisions affecting
work methods.

• This also adds to the problem solving capacities and hence

greater knowledge of the work and the organization.
Certain approaches also help in workplace hazard control.
 Instrumentation for occupational
ergonomics:

• Many measurements in industrial ergonomics involve

the use of electronic or mechanical instruments.
• A good instrument should satisfy certain
measurement principles like,
• Accuracy- it is the difference between the quantity as
measured and its true value.

• Precision- it is the ability of an instrument to

reproduce the same measurement over and over
again. Higher precision does not necessarily imply
better accuracy.

• Resolution- it is the smallest change that the

instrument is capable of detecting. It is based on
accuracy and precision.
• Range- minimum range is the min quantity the
instrument can resolve and max range is the greatest
input that will not damage the instrument or the
greatest quantity an instrument can measure with a
certain accuracy.

• Calibration- a measurement against a more accurate

reference standard. It should be performed over the
complete range of the instrument.
 Occupational heat stress:
• It is the combined effect of climatic conditions,
metabolism and clothing.

• It includes changes in body temperature, heart rate, and

sweating.

• The core temperature is important measure of heat stress.

• Common disorders associated with heat stress are
dehydration, heat exhaustion and heat stroke,
syncope, cramps and rashes.

• Recognition and evaluation for risk factors for heat

stress at worksite is very important.

• Some heat stress hygiene practices like fluid

replacement, lifestyle and diet, etc should be
practiced to lower the risk of heat related disorder.
 REFERENCES

• Kodak’s Ergonomic Design For People At Work. Second Edition. The Eastman
Kodak Company. John Wiley And Sons. Page No- 191- 213, 269- 279

• Occupational Ergonomics. Amit Bhattacharya. Marcel Dekker, Inc. P. No-1- 235

• Occupational Biomechanics. Chaffin. Wiley Interscience. Page- 37-49