LONG SPAN STRUCTURE

CASE STUDIES

SHIVANI KOTHAWADE
DIV- B
NDMVP CANS COLLEGE NASHIK.
 LONG SPAN STRUCTURES
CASE STUDIES
• FORM ACTIVE TYPE
1. CABLE STRUCTURE-
AKASHI KAIKYO BRIDGE,JAPAN
THE BRIDGE HAS THREE SPANS .
THE CENTRAL SPAN IS 1990M AND THE SIDE SPANS ARE 960M.
THE OVERALL BRIDGE IS 3911M LONG
ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

• Two main springs as an extension for laying the foundations of the towers were built with round and flat, the
largest with a diameter of 80m and the other 78m. 
• Drawer descending method was used for large profundad position and ocean currents in its construction.
Each anchor requires, an average of 350,000 tons of concrete. Also, large deep foundation anchors were built
on reclaimed land with many new technologies. All foundations were well designed to cope with the strong
earthquakes with a seismic design method.

• DAMPER - dampers sway in the opposite direction, effectively balancing the bridge and placed negating the
influence of wind. The bridge also contains pendulums which are designed to operate at the resonant
frequency of the bridge to dampen forces.
TOWERS – The two main supporting towers rise 282.8 meters above sea level.steel
cables with a diameter of 112cm contain 36,830 lines of wire. The bridge is supported by
two cables basically the central section, considered the toughest in the world
constructed. Tower is made of steel. The shaft of the tower is divided into 30 levels and
almost all levels are composed of 3 blocks. 

MATERIALS- Steel and reinforced concrete and for

foundation non-disintegration concrete.
•Cables
The length of the cables used in the bridge
amounts to 300,000 kilometers, enough to circle
the earth 7.5 times. Steel cables with a diameter
of 112cm contain 36,830 lines of wire.
•Cable Specifications:
Method of construction: PS (Precast
Strand) – ultimate tensile strength cable: approx.
62,500 tonnes
Resistance to high tensile rope hanger approx.
560 tons – Material: galvanized steel wire of high
resistance
2. TENT STRUCTURES –
THE KHAN SHATYR ENTERTAINMAINT CENTER.
Entertainmain center represents a major new civic,cultural and social venue for the people
,bringing together a wide range of activities within a sheltered tensile climatic envelope which
provides comfortable environment in a very low degree temperature
AREA- 1,00,000m2

CONSTRUCTION AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS-

With a sinle compression mast to lift the net and create a large volume underneath.
Tripod structure-each tripod eg is formed fromed from a three chord truss with 1000mm dia.
The hub is located so that its center line corresponds with the resultant axial force from the
cable net under prestress loads.
The tripod provides the single point of support to the center of the cable net an imp element.

MATERIALS-
ETEF Cushions-the 19,000m2 transparent roof of the entertainment center comprises Ethylene tetre
fluroethylene cushions supported on a cable net structure.Specifications of ETEF cushions-lightweight,provide
natural light
3. PNEUMATIC STRUCTURE –
THE TOKYO DOME.
• Originally named as "The Big Egg", the Tokyo Dome
construction began on 1985 and was opened for
business in 1988. The Tokyo Dome is primarily a baseball
stadium with approximately 55,000-seat but it also hosts
the live shows of Toei Superheroes.

• The roof of the dome is an inflatable structure made of

flexible membrane that makes it one of its own kind of
stadiums in Asia
CONSTRUCTION AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS-
It is supported by pressurized air contained within
inflated building element. The pressurized air in
the pillow serves only to stabilizing the load
carrying membrane. The covered space is not
pressurized.Supporting frames consist of air under
high pressure.Internal pressure of building remains
at atmospheric pressure.There is no restrictions in
number and size of openings.. It has the ability to
support itself. They have potential to support an
attached structure as well.
 ANALYSIS OF TOKYO DOME

• LIGHTWEIGHT,LARGE SPAN-
The Tokyo dome is very light weight though it covers 50000sq.m area.
• QUICK ERECTION & DISMANTLING.
• ECONOMICAL.
• GOOD NATURAL LIGHTING.
• HUMAN HEALTH-. Man can withstand pressures between o.20 atm to 3 atm.
Therefore no health hazard is presented by continuous stay in a pneumatic
structure.
• ENEVELOPE-Material are seamed together by sealing, heat bonding or mechanical
jointing The design of the envelope depends onan evenly pressurized
environment.
• CABLE SYSTEM-They act as the supporting system. They experience tension force
due to the upward force of the air.Can be placed in one or two directions tocreate
a network and for better stability. They do not fail since they are pulled tight
enough to absorb the external loads.
• PUMPING EQUIPMENT-It is used to supply and maintain internal pressure inside
the structure.. Fans, blowers or compressors are used for constant supply of
air.The amount of air required depends on the weight of the material and the
wind pressur
• ENTRANCE-Doors can be ordinary doors or airlocks.Airlock minimize the
chances of having an unevenly pressurized environment.
HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEM- Used in Tokyo dome for easy erection & dismantling; the
pressure difference is b/w 2000-7000mm of water pressure (100 to 1000 times) low
pressure systems. These high pressure air inflated systems are either having a single
valve system or a double valve systems which avoids it's collapse.

Wind loads produce a lateral force on the structures and snow

load causes downward forces on envelope.Pneumatic
structures are designed to withstand wind load of 120 mph and
a snow load of 40 pounds/yard.
MATERIALS-

STEEL CABLES-Steel wires are twisted into strands

which are then twisted around a core to form the
cable.

NYLON-
Vinyl-coated nylon has more strength,
ETFE(ETHYLENE durability and stretchthan
TETRAFLUOROETHYL polyester.They have a higher cost.
ENE)It is very energy
efficient becaus of
FIBERGLASS-They high transparency,
tensile strength, elastic insulation and UV
behavior and resistance. It is also
durability.Coated with light weight has an
Teflon or silicone to lifespan on 20 years
increase resistance to and is
extreme temperatures
and UV radiation.
• FORM ACTIVE TYPE
1. ARCH STRUCTURE-
Sydney harbour bridge
• Most cities in the world share a basic policy when it
comes to their bridges: no climbing
• Considering the numerous issues of public and
personal safety that immediately come to mind, it's
understandable. Sydney, Australia is apparently not like
most cities
• . Amongst the iconic landmarks of the city's famed
harbor is the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the tallest of its
kind in the world.
• Rather than telling people to stay off, however, the city
promotes climbing the sides of this towering structure
as a recreational activity.
• Equipped with climbing gear and led by professional
guides, the bold can trek to the top of the bridge for an
unparalleled view of the city. It might sound crazy, but
Australians are pretty proud of the Sydney Harbour
Bridge.
basic structure • The way this bridge transfers dead/live and
environmental loads to the ground is the
loads act upon the crossing (shown above
in blue), this crossing begins to bend under
the weight of the loads
• When the crossing begins to bend this
causes the columns (green) to be in tension
and take the weight of the crossing.
• As the columns get pulled this in turn pulls
down the steel frame structure (black).
• From here the steel frame structure
distributes the weight along its internal
structure until it gets to the cement
columns (red).
• From here the cement columns which are
buried deep into the ground take this
weight and transfer it to the ground.
• The materials used when constructing the Sydney
Harbour bridge were concrete and steel.
construction
• Firstly the steel was chosen over materials such as materials
wood because woods strength is nowhere near as
reliable as steel, they would have had to use much
larger quantities of wood to get a similar sort of
strength, they would have had to use steel brackets
at the joints regardless so steel would have been
required anyway and lastly steel will last a lot longer
than wood and when the project was decided to be
this big they didn’t want to use a material that
would have to be replaced in the near future
• Sydney Harbour Bridge, weight saving was obtained
by using a special form of concrete which had a
lower, though acceptable, strength than traditional
concrete’ (Board of Studies NSW, 2012).
• This ‘coke cement’ was expected to lower the
weight of the bridges crossing surface by up to 44%
if chosen over normal concrete.
• Another innovative material used was silicone steel. This material was used for
the main structure of the bridge to increase strength
• ‘The steel used by Dorman, Long & Co. to construct the bridge was therefore
higher in carbon content than mild steel making it stronger and tougher by
structure
having a greater proportion of Pearlite present.
• Added to that, their steel had relatively high quantities of Silicon and
loads and
Manganese that increased the strength of the Ferrite in the microstructure. load paths
• These facts account for the fact that their silicon steel has an average yield
strength 1.3 times that of the average yield strength of mild steel’(Board of
Studies NSW, 2009).

• The dead loads of the bridge would simply be self-weight of the structure this is made up of the bridges
arc, cables, steel frame, cement crossing and its rivets.
• These are regarded as the bridges dead weight as these weights are constantly applying a force to the
bridge
• The live loads that act on the bridge are predominantly
• The bridge has eight vehicle lanes, two train lines, a footway and a cycleway this means there can be a
number of live loads acting on this structure at the same time.
• This bridge has been made to distribute all of the weight acting on the crossing threw all the steel
columns to its huge steel frame and then down through its support columns
 SECTION- ACTIVE TYPE
BEAM STRUCTURE-
IKEA COMMERCIAL CENTER ,CYPRUS
Location :- Cyprus , Nicosia
Project Architect: Pavlina Kalatha
Total Area :- 22 000 m2
• About the structure of IKEA Commercial centre :- ▪ The building is
composed of three parts: I. the store (two blocks placed side by side)
with an underground car park, II. an additional underground car park
completely detached from the main structure. III. A building for offices
and service installations.
• In this building three-dimensional steel-concrete frames integrated
with horizontal and vertical braces respectively arranged on the roof
and the facades.
• Concrete columns and walls support the ground floor with
multidirectional curved neoprene supports, discs in PTFE, and stainless
steel disposed on the perimeter while the supports are fixed in the
central area.
• The two upper levels have a steel-concrete structure, with steel
columns and beams and floors made of steel decking profiles and
concrete fill.
• The main and secondary beams are continuous, respectively
with 8 and 16 m spans.

• The roof is a structure composed of continuous IPE 750x137

beams with 16 m span.

• Secondary structure built with cellular beams by a double

slope with a central span of 8 m. They are continuous on 24
and 16 m spans.
• The steel and concrete structure, two and partly three storeys high, is one of
the most common in shopping centres: ▪ It is particularly efficient from a
structural point of view, but it is also aesthetically interesting as it is
completely visible. ▪ cellular beams were used as a light and transparent
solution for long span structures.
Flexible,coloumn free internal spaces
Reduced foundation costs
Facilitates the integration of services without increasing the overall floor depth.
 VECTOR- ACTIVE –
SPACE TRUSSES & FRAMES
HALL OF NATION,PRAGATI MAIDAN,NEW DELHI
Project Architect: Raj Rewal
Total Area :- it contains an enclosure with a column-free main hall of 6700 sq.m, and
four smaller halls adding an additional 7500 sq.m, under its roof structure. 
• This complex of exhibition halls for the 1972 International Trade Fair was
planned, designed and constructed in 22 months. Its large-span cast-in-situ
concrete space frames 
• The Hall of Nations consists of units of a 4.9m x 4.9m base and 3.5m height which form the 73m x 73m
pyramid, truncated at the height of 30m with a roof span of 39m x 39m.

• he innovative resolution of the nodes in this way provided the requisite strength at the node to absorb the
heavy compressive or tensile forces from the members.

• The simplicity and clarity of the Drawings of a

pyramid geometry is carried typical joint in
through consistently in plans, steel, precast
sections and elevations. The concrete and in-
structure blooms out of twenty-four situ concrete.
nodes at the ground level, six nodes
at each face of the square plan

• A system of scaffolding would

support the structure till level 5,
one level above all the desired
openings in the lower levels. After
level 5, the structure itself
supports additional construction
load, freeing the ground space.
 The Hall of Nations was supported on in-situ-driven piles tied together with grade beams in two
directions. First, along the six springing points in one face of the pyramid, and second, along the
other direction connecting the opposite faces of the pyramid. The latter were post-tensioned in
stages to cater to the large horizontal forces that developed as the structure went up.

Construction photos
of pile caps and the
reinforcement being
arranged for the
space-frame
members.
 SURFACE- ACTIVE TYPE
FOLDED &PALTE TYPE OF STRUCTURE-
AIR FORCE ACADEMY CHAPEL, USA
Architect: Walter Netsch
Length: 280 ft, Height: 150 ft, Width: 84 ft
Year: 1962

• The United States Air Force Academy Cadet Chapel completed in

1962, is the distinguishing feature of the Cadet Area at the United
States Air force academy north of Colorado SpringsIt was designed
by Walter Netsch of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill of Chicago.
• Construction was accomplished by Robert E. McKee, Inc., of
Santa Fe, New Mexico. Originally controversial in its design, the
Cadet Chapel has become a classic and highly regarded example
of modernist architecture.
• The Cadet Chapel was awarded the American Institute
ofArchitects National Twenty-five Year Award in 1996 and,as part
of the Cadet Area, was named a U.S. NationalHistoric Landmark in
2004.
CONSTRUCTION AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS &MATERIALS-

• The most striking aspect of the Chapel is its row of

seventeen spires. The original design called for twenty one
spires, but this number was reduced due to budget issues.
• The structure is a tubular steel frame of 100 identical
tetrahedrons, each 75 feet (23 m) long, weighing five tons,
and enclosed with Aluminium panels
• The tetrahedrons are spaced a foot apart, creating gaps in
the framework that are filled with 1-inch-thick (25 mm)
coloured glass.
• The tetrahedrons comprising the spires are filled by
triangular Aluminium panels, while the tetrahedrons
between the spires are filled with a mosaic of Coloured glass
in Aluminium frame.
• The Cadet Chapel itself is 150 feet (46 m) high, 280 feet
(85 m) long, and 84 feet (26 m) wide. The front façade, on
the south, has a wide granite stairway with steel railings
capped by Aluminium handrails leading up one story to a
landing.. At the landing is a band of gold anodized
Aluminium doors, and gold anodized aluminium sheets
apparently covering original windows.
 FLAT TRUSS-
taylor southgate bridge
• The Taylor–Southgate Bridge is a continuous truss bridge that was
built in 1995. It has a main span of 850 feet (260 m), and a total span
of 1,850 feet (560 m). The bridge carries U.S. Route 27 across the
Ohio River, connecting Newport, Kentucky and Cincinnati, Ohio.

• Some regard this bridge, which was a replacement for the Cincinnati-
Newport Bridge built by Samuel Bigstaff,[2] as a little too plain in its
design for a major urban bridge, especially considering many cities
today are opting for a more elegant design, such as a cable stayed
bridge.[3]

• The bridge is named for the families of James Taylor, Jr. and Richard
Southgate, two important early settlers of Newport. Richard was the
father of William Wright Southgate, a pre Civil War Congressman
from northern Kentucky.
 construction
Taylor-Southgate Bridge is a truss girder bridge which uses
Warren truss that has vertical members in every designated
span to distribute loads.

The Warren Truss was patented by James Warren in 1848. It

has been around a while. It is one of the most popular bridge
designs and examples of it can be found everywhere in the
world
. One of them is none other than Taylor-Southgate Bridge. The
Warren Truss uses equilateral triangles to spread out the loads
on the bridge.
This is opposed to the Neville Truss which used isosceles
triangles. The equilateral triangles minimize the forces only
compression and tension. Interestingly.
as a load such as a car or train moves to across the bridge,
sometimes the force of a member switches from compression
to tension. This happens especially to the members near the
center of the bridg
Analysis
Firstly, precedent study of Taylor-Southgate Bridge had been conducted to
gain an insight on how a truss design could affect the structural strength
and its construction methods.
To achieve a higher efficiency of fettuccine bridge, the strength of
fettuccine was being tested to examine its ability of load sustaining.
Moreover, various types of glues were tested by applying a point load at
the center of a three layer fettuccine stick.

Secondly, four designs of truss bridge had been constructed to test on its
efficiency in load distribution and withstanding higher loads.
Each type of the fettuccine bridge was not in a smaller scale, instead, all
bridges are constructed in real sizes to test on the efficiency more
precisely. Warren Bridge was chosen to be incorporated in the final design.
THANK
YOU…..

SHIVANI KOTHAWADE
DIV- B
NDMVP CANS COLLEGE NASHIK.