Bituminous Road

Deterioration
Christopher R. Bennett
Director - Data Collection Ltd.
 Base Types and
Surface Types and Materials
 Asphalt Concrete
 Hot Rolled Modified Asphalt

Asphalt Mix
 Rubberized Asphalt
 Polymer Asphalt Concrete
 Soft Bitumen Mix (Cold Mix)
 Porous Asphalt
 Granular Base  Stone Mastic
 Asphalt Base
 Asphalt Pavement Base  Cape Seal
 Stabilized Base
 Double Bituminous Surface Dressing
Surface Treatment

 Single Bituminous Surface Dressing

 Slurry Seal
 Penetration Macadam
 Pavement Classification
System (Bituminous
Pavements)
Surface Type Base Type Pavement Type
Asphalt Mix Granular Base AMGB
Asphalt Base AMAB
Stabilised Base AMSB
Asphalt Pavement AMAP
Surface Treatment Granular Base STGB
Asphalt Base STAB
Stabilised Base STSB
Asphalt Pavement STAP
Base and Surface Types
Over Time
1998 (STAP) 25 mm Surface
New Surfacing Dressing

1994 (AMAP) 50mm AC Overlay 50 mm AC Overlay

100 mm
50 mm AC
Previous Surfacing Surfacing
1988 (AMGB) 50mm AC Surfacing

200mm Granular Roadbase

150mm Granular Sub-base

Subgrade (CBR 8%)

Figure 1.1Case Study PROJ2: Details of existing pavements and pavement type resets
Distress Modes
 Surfacing Distress
 Cracking

 Ravelling

 Potholing

 Edge-Break New
 Deformation Distress
 Rutting

 Roughness

 Pavement Surface Texture Distress

 Texture Depth New
 Skid Resistance New

 Drainage Distress
 Drainage New
 Surfacing Distress

 Cracking Area: Sum of rectangular areas

circumscribing manifest distress (line cracks are
assigned a width of 0.5 m), expressed as a
percentage of carriageway area.
 Structural Cracking
 Narrow Cracking (1-3 mm crack width)
 Wide Cracking (> 3 mm crack width)
 Thermal Transverse Cracking
 Ravelling Area: Area of loss of material from wearing
surface, expressed as a percentage of carriageway
area.
 Surfacing Distress

 Number of Potholes: Number of potholes per kilometer

expressed in terms of the number of ‘standard’ sized
potholes of area 0.1 m2. A pothole being defined as an
open cavity in road surface with at least 150 mm
diameter and at least 25 mm depth.
 Edge Break Area: Loss of bituminous surface material
(and possibly base materials) from the edge of the
pavement, expressed in square meters per km.

HDM-4 assigns a depth of 100 mm to potholes and edge

break area
 Deformation Distress

 Rutting: Permanent traffic-associated deformation

within pavement layers which, if channelised into
wheelpaths, accumulates over time and becomes
manifested as a rut, expressed as the maximum depth
under 2 m straightedge placed transversely across a
wheelpath.
 Roughness: Deviations of surface from true planar
surface with characteristic dimensions that affect
vehicle dynamics, ride quality, dynamic loads and
drainage, expressed in the International Roughness
Index, IRI (m/km).
 Pavement Surface Texture
Distress
 Texture Depth: Average depth of the surface of a
road expressed as the quotient of a given volume
of standardized material (sand) and the area of
that material spread in a circular patch on the
surface being tested.
 Skid Resistance: Resistance to skidding
expressed by the sideways force coefficient
(SDF) at 50 km/h measured using the Sideways
Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine
(SCRIM).
Drainage Distress
Drainage: Drainage condition
(excellent, good, fair, poor or very
poor), which defines the drainage
factor.
 Interaction
Area of Mechanisms Rut
Cracking depth

t1 t1
Time Time

Water Lower strength Faster

ingress deformation

Uneven
Surface Uneven
surface
Further
Spalling cracking
ROUGHNESS Shear

Potholes
Patches
Patches
 Roughne
ss Scales
International Roughness Bump Integrator Quarter-car Index Present Serviceability
Index Trailer TRRL Index Index
IRI m/km BI mm/km QI counts/km PSI

0 0 0 5.0
1 700 13 4.2
Good Paved 2 1400 26 3.5
3 2200 40 3.0
4 3000 50 2.4
5 3800 65 2.0
6 4700 80 1.7
Good Unpaved 8 6500 100 1.2
10 8300 130 0.6
Poor Paved 12 10000 156 0
16 14000 210
Poor Unpaved 20 18000 260
24 22000 310

BI = 360 IRI^1.12 IRI = 0.0032 BI^0.89

QI = 13 IRI IRI = QI / 13
SI = 5 e^(-0.18 IRI) IRI = 5.5 ln (5.0/SI)
 Paved Road
Deterioration
Year Loop Sequence Input pavement
strength,
condition, age for initial
Compute traffic analysis year
loading
Compute surface distress
increment
Compute roughness
increment

Scheduled
maintenance? Y
N

Condition Compute
responsive? maintenance
Y effects
N

Patching?
Y
N
Compute post-maintenance condition, strength,
age
 Annual
Change
in
Roughness Roughness at the
End of the Year
Roughness Increment
during the analysis year RIe
RI
Roughness at the
Beginning of the Year
Analysis Year
RIa

RIe = RIa + IRI

 Maintenan
ce Effects
Roughness at the Roughness at the
Beginning of the Year End of the Year
Roughness Increment
during the analysis year
IRIb dIRI IRIe
Analysis Year
IRIb dIRI IRIe
Analysis Year

dIRIoper Maintenance
Operation
Effect

IRIb1 = IRIb0 + dIRI + dIRIoper

 Annual Change in Roughness

RI = Kgp [RIs + RIc + RIr + RIt ] + RIe

where

RI = total incremental change in roughness during analysis year, in m/km IRI

Kgp = calibration factor for roughness progression

RIs = incremental change in roughness due to structural deterioration during analysis

year, in m/km IRI
RIc = incremental change in roughness due to cracking during analysis year, in m/km
IRI
RIr = incremental change in roughness due to rutting during analysis year, in m/km
IRI
RIt = incremental change in roughness due to potholing during analysis year, in m/km
IRI

RIe = incremental change in roughness due to environment during analysis year, in

m/km IRI
 Roughness Environmental
Coefficient ‘m’ by HDM-4
Climate Zones
RIe = m Kgm RIa . . . (12.8)
where
RIe = incremental change in roughness due to environment during
analysis year, in m/km IRI
RIa = roughness at the start of the analysis year, in m/km IRI
m = environmental coefficient
Kgm = calibration factor for the environmental component

Moisture Temperature Classification

Classification Tropical Sub-tropical Sub-tropical Temperate Temperate
hot cool cool freeze
Arid 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.025 0.040
Semi-arid 0.010 0.015 0.025 0.035 0.060
Sub-humid 0.020 0.025 0.040 0.060 0.100
Humid 0.025 0.030 0.060 0.100 0.200
Per-humid 0.030 0.040 0.070
 Pavement Strength
The strength of bituminous pavements is characterised
by the adjusted structural number - SNP
The SNP applies a weighting factor, which reduces with
increasing depth, to the sub-base and sub-grade
contributions so that the pavement strength for deep
pavements is not over-predicted.

SNPS = SNBASUS + SNSUBAS + SNSUBG

SNBASU = contribution from surface and base layers

SNSUBA = contribution from sub-base layers
SNSUBG = contribution from subgrade
S = season
 Pavement Strength

Structural Number (AASHTO)

Contribution of subgrade function of CBR (HDM-III)

Weighting factor, which reduces with increasing depth (HDM-4)
 SNP Seasonal and
Drainage Effects
The average annual SNP used in the models is derived
from the dry season SNP, SNPd, and the lengths of the
dry

SNP = fs* SNPd

fs = function of SNPw / SNPd and length of dry season

Drainage effect on pavement strength is modelled

through the changes in the drainage factor DF [1
excellent - 5 very poor]

SNPw / SNPd = f = function of DF, rainfall,

surface distress
SNP Seasonal and
Drainage Effects
 “Final” Structural Number

SNd = 0.0394 *  a * h
SNPd = SNd + sub-base and sub-grade contributions
SNP = fs * SNPd

SNPk = SNP - dSNPK

SNPK = “Final” Structural Number

SNP = Adjusted Structural Number
dSNPK = Reduction in adjusted structural number due to
cracking
SNP Layer Strength
Coefficients
 Final Structural Number and
Benkelman Deflection

Benkelman

Deflection
if base is not cemented
SNPk = 3.2 DEF^-0.63
if base is cemented
SNPk = 2.2 DEF^-0.63

if base is not cemented

DEF = 6.5 SNPk^-1.6
if base is cemented
DEF = 3.5 SNPk^-1.6 “Final”
Structural
Number
 Crack Modelling

 Structural Cracking: This is effectively load and

age/environment associated cracking.
 Transverse Thermal Cracking: This is generally caused
by large diurnal temperature changes or in freeze/thaw
conditions, and therefore usually occurs in certain
climates.

For each type of cracking, separate relationships are

given for predicting the time to initiation and the rate of
progression.
 Cracking, Ravelling and Potholes
Initiation and Progression

120

100

80
Area (%)

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Year
Initiation
Progression
 Crack Initiation

 ICA=Kcia{CDS2*a0exp[a1SNP+a2(YE4/SN2)]
+ CRT}

 ICA time to cracking initiation, in years

 CDS construction defects indicator for
bituminous surfacings
 SNP structural number of pavement
 YE4 annual number of ESALs, in millions/lane
 Kcia calibration factor for cracking initiation
 CRT cracking retardation time due to
maintenance
 Crack Initiation

Crack Initiation

100
90
80
Percent Area of Cracking

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Years

Kci = 1.00 Kci = 1.80 Kci = 0.55

 Crack Progression
CRP


 a2
d
ACA
=K CDSz
 c
p[
a(
z
 *
a
 A A0 1

*
a *
t
A*Y
E4
*S
NP
 
a11
+S
CA )/a1
-SCA]

CRP retardation of cracking progression

due to preventive treatment

Progression of All cracking commences when tA > 0 or

ACAa > 0
 Crack Progression

Crack Progression

100
90
80
Percent Area of Cracking

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Years

Kcp = 1.0 Kcp = 2.0 Kcp = 0.4

 Transverse Thermal
Cracking Initiation
 ICT = Kcit max[a0, CDS3 (CCT +a1
+ a2 HSNEW)]

 ICT time to cracking initiation, in years

 CCT coefficient of thermal cracking
 HSNEW thickness of the most recent
surfacing, in mm
 Kcit calibration factor
 Thermal Crack Progression

d N
CT
=K 1 


ma
x


{
0

,mi
n [
(NC
T –N
CT)
,
c
pt e
q a
CDS






NCT





eq





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 dNCT incremental change in number of

transverse thermal cracks, in no/km
 NCTa number of (reflected) transverse
thermal cracks at the start of the
analysis, in no./km
 NCTeq maximum number of thermal cracks, in
no./km
 Kcpt calibration factor for cracking initiation
 Ravelling Initiation

 IRV = Kvi CDS2 a0 RRF exp(a1 YAX)

 IRV time to ravelling initiation, in years

 YAX annual number of axles, in
millions/lane
 Kvi calibration factor for ravelling initiation
 RRF ravelling retardation factor due to
maintenance
 Ravelling Progression

 Progression of ravelling commences when tv > 0 or

ARVa > 0
 dARV change in area of ravelling during analysis
year, % of total carriageway area
 SRVa area of ravelling at the start of the analysis
year, in per cent
 Kvp calibration factor
Pothole Initiation

 IPT time between the initiation of ACW or

ravelling and the initiation of potholes, in years
 HS total thickness of bituminous surfacing, in mm
 CDB construction defects indicator for the base
 YAX annual number of axles , in millions/lane
 MMP mean monthly precipitation, in mm/month
 Kpi calibration factor for pothole initiation
Pothole Progression

 dNPTi additional number of potholes per km

deriving from distress type i (wide cracking,
ravelling, enlargement)
 ADISi per cent area of distress i at start of the
analysis year
 TLF time lapse factor
 Kpp calibration factor
 Edge break

 dVEB annual loss of edge material, in m3/km

 PSH proportion of time using shoulder
 AADT annual average daily traffic
 ESTEP elevation difference from pavement to shoulder, in mm
 MMP mean monthly precipitation, in mm/month
 Saverage traffic speed, in km/h
 CW carriageway width, in m
 Keb calibration factor
 Damaged and
Undamaged Area

 The total road surface will consist of the

following:
 edge break
 potholes
 cracking
 ravelling
 undamaged
 Rut Depth Modeling

 Rutting is defined as the permanent or

unrecoverable traffic-associated deformation
within pavement layers.
 The rut depth model is based on four components
of rutting:
 Initial densification
 Structural deformation
 Plastic deformation
 Wear from studded tires
 Rut Depth Progression

Structural Deterioration - With Cracking

Rut Depth

Densification - No Cracking

Initial Densification (First Year)

Age
 Initial Densification

 RDO rutting due to initial densification, mm

 YE4 Number of equivalent standard axles
 DEF Benkelman beam deflection, in mm
 SNP structural number of the pavement
 COMP relative compaction, (%)
 Krid calibration factor
 Structural Deformation

 Structural deformation without cracking

 Structural deformation after cracking

 Plastic Deformation

 RDPD incremental increase in plastic deformation in

analysis year, in mm
 CDS construction defects indicator for bituminous
surfacings
 Sh speed of heavy vehicles, in km/h
 HS total thickness of bituminous surfacing, mm
 Krpd calibration factor
 Wear by Studded Tires

 RDW incremental increase in rut depth due to studded tyres

in analysis year, in mm
 PASS annual number of vehicle passes with studded tyres in
one direction, in thousands
 SALT variable for salted or unsalted roads (2 = salted; 1 =
unsalted)
 Krsw calibration factor
 Rut Depth Standard Deviation

 RDS = a0 RDM

 RDS incremental increase in rut depth

standard deviation in analysis
year, in mm
 RDM incremental increase in total rut
depth in analysis year, in mm
 a0 model coefficient (default =0.5)
 Texture Depth

 TD incremental change in sand patch derived texture depth

during analysis year, in mm
 TDa texture depth at the beginning of the analysis year
 NELV number of equivalent light vehicle passes during analysis
year
 Ktd calibration factor for texture depth
 Skid Resistance

 SFC50 = Ksfc a0 QCV

 SFC50 incremental change in side force

coefficient during analysis year,
measured at 50 km/h
 QCV annual incremental increase in the
flow of commercial vehicles, in
veh/lane/day
 Ksfc calibration factor
The End