External Validity vs Internal Validity

External validity:: itit is

External validity is the
the extent
extent to
to which
which the
the
results
results ofof aa study
study can can bebe generalized
generalized to
to other
other
situations
situations and
and to to other
other people
people (general
(general public).
public).
High
High in
in case
case ofof field
field studies.
studies.

Internal validity:: ItIt is

Internal validity is the
the extent
extent toto which
which claims
claims or
or
results
results ofof aa study
study are are error
error free
free (cause
(cause effect
effect
relationship).
relationship).
High
High in
in case
case of
of experiments.
experiments.

1
External Validity vs Internal Validity

2
EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN

3
 EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENTS

A 'true experiment' is a method of social research in which there are

two kinds of variables: independent and dependent. The independent
variable is manipulated by the experimenter, and the change in
dependent variable is measured.

Field experiments are so named to distinguish them from

laboratory experiments, which enforce scientific control by
testing a hypothesis in the artificial and highly controlled setting
of a laboratory. field experiments have the advantage that
outcomes are observed in a natural setting rather than in a
controlled laboratory environment.

4
 EXAMPLE OF
EXAMPLE OF FIELD
FIELD EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT
Thebank
The bankmanager
managerwants wantstotodetermine
determinethe thecause-and-effect
cause-and-effectrelationship
relationshipbetween
betweeninterest
interest
rateand
rate andthetheinducements
inducementsititoffers
offerstotoclients
clientstotosave saveandanddeposit
depositmoney
moneyininthethebank.
bank.SheShe
selects branches
selects branches within
within aa 10-mile
10-mile radius
radius for for the the experiment.
experiment. For For 11 week
week only,
only, she
she
advertisethe
advertise theannual
annualrateratefor
fornew
newcertificates
certificatesofofdeposit depositreceived
receivedduring
duringthat
thatweek
weekininthe
the
followingmanner:
following manner:the theinterest
interestrate
ratewould
wouldbe be9% 9%ininone onebranch,
branch,8% 8%ininanother,
another,andand10%
10%
ininthe
thethird.
third.InInthe
thefourth
fourthbranch,
branch,thetheinterest
interestrate rateremains
remainsunchanged
unchangedatat5%. 5%.Within
Withinthethe
weekor
week ormonth,
month,she shewould
wouldbe beable
abletotodetermine
determinethe theeffects,
effects,ififany,
any,of
ofinterest
interestrates
ratesonon
depositmobilization.
deposit mobilization.
The above
The above would
would be be aa field
field experiment
experiment since since nothing
nothing butbut the
the interest
interest rate
rate inin
manipulated,with
manipulated, withall
allactivities
activitiesoccurring
occurringininthe thenormal
normaland andnatural
naturalwork
workenvironment.
environment.
Hopefully,all
Hopefully, allfour
fourbranches
brancheschosen
chosenwould
wouldbe bemoremoreor orless
lesscompatible
compatibleininsize,
size,number
number
ofofdepositors,
depositors,deposit
depositpatterns,
patterns,andandthe
thelike,
like,sosothatthatthe
theinterest
interestsavings
savingsrelationships
relationshipsareare
not influenced
not influenced by by some
some third
third factors.
factors. But But itit isis possible
possible that
that some
some other
other factors
factors might
might
affectthe
affect thefindings.
findings.For Forexample,
example,oneoneof ofthe
theareas
areasmay mayhave
havemore
moreretirees
retireeswho
whomaymaynotnot
have additional
have additional disposable
disposable income
income that
that they
they could
could deposit,
deposit, despite
despite the
the attraction
attraction ofof aa
goodinterest
good interestrate.
rate.The
Thebanker
bankermaymaynotnothavehavebeenbeenawareawareof ofthis
thisfact
factwhile
whilesetting
settingupupthe
the
experiment.
experiment.
5
 EXAMPLE OF
EXAMPLE OF LAB
LAB EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT
Thebank
The bankmanager
managernow nowwants
wantstotoestablish
establishthe thecausal
causalconnection
connectionbetween
betweeninterest
interestrates
rates
and saving,
and saving, beyond
beyond aa doubt.
doubt. Because
Because of of this
this she
she wants
wants toto create
create an an artificial
artificial
environment and
environment and trace
trace the
the true
true cause
cause andand effect
effect relationship.
relationship. She She recruits
recruits 4040 students
students
whoare
who areall
allbusiness
businessmajors
majorsinintheir
theirfinal
finalyear
yearof ofstudy
studyandandare
aremore
moreor orless
lessofofthe
thesame
same
age. She
age. She splits
splits them
them into
into four
four groups
groups andand gives
gives each
each one
one ofof them
them amount
amount ofof $1,000,
$1,000,
whichthey
which theyarearetold
toldthey
theymight
mightutilize
utilizetotobuy
buytheir
theirneeds
needswithin
withincampus
campusororsavesaveforforthe
the
future,or
future, orboth.
both.SheSheoffers
offersthem
theman anincentive,
incentive,interest
interestononwhat
whatthey
theysave
savebutbutmanipulates
manipulates
theinterest
the interestrates
ratesbybyoffering
offeringaa6% 6%interest
interestrate
rateon onsavings
savingsforforgroup
group1,1,8% 8%forforgroup
group2,2,
9%for
9% forgroup
group3,3,andandkeeps
keepsthetheinterest
interestatatthe
thelowest
lowestraterateofof1%
1%forforgroup
group4.4.
Herethe
Here themanager
managerhas hascreated
createdan anartificial
artificiallaboratory
laboratoryenvironment
environmentand andhashasmanipulated
manipulated
theinterest
the interestrates
ratesfor
forsavings.
savings.SheShehashasalso
alsochosen
chosensubjects
subjectswith
withsimilar
similarbackgrounds
backgroundsand and
exposuretotofinancial
exposure financialmatters
matters(business
(businessstudents).
students).IfIfthethebanker
bankerfinds
findsthat
thatthe
thesavings
savingsby by
the four
the four groups
groups increase
increase progressively,
progressively, keeping
keeping inin stepstep with
with thethe increasing
increasing rates
rates ofof
interest, she
interest, she would
would be be able
able toto established
established aa cause cause and
and effect
effect relationship
relationship between
between
interestand
interest andthethedisposition
dispositiontotosave.
save.
Inthis
In thislablabexperiment,
experiment,the theresearcher
researcherinterference
interferencehas hasbeen
beenmaximum,
maximum,the theindependent
independent
variablehas
variable hasbeen
beenmanipulated,
manipulated,and andmost
mostexternal
externalcontaminating
contaminatingfactorsfactorssuch
suchasasage
ageand
and
experiencehave
experience havebeen
beencontrolled.
controlled.
6
 TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Pretest and Posttest Experimental Group Design

An experimental group (without a control group) may be given a pretest
exposed to a treatment, and then given a posttest to measure the effects of the
treatment. Where O refers to some process of observation or measurement, X
represents the exposure of a group to an experimental treatment, and the X
and Os in the row are applied to the same specific group. Here, the effects of
the treatment can be obtained by measuring the difference between the
posttest and the pretest (O2-O1).

Group Pretest score Treatment Posttest Score

Experimental group O1 X O2
Treatment effect = (O2-O1)

7
 Posttests Only with Experimental and Control Groups
Some experimental designs are set up with an experimental and a control
group, the former alone being exposed to a treatment and not the latter. The
effects of the treatment are studied by assessing the difference in the
outcomes-that is, the posttest scores of the experimental and control groups.

Group Treatment Outcome

Experimental group X O1
Control group O2
Treatment effect = (O2-O1)
8
Pretest and
Pretest and posttest
posttest experimental
experimental and
and control
control groups
groups

Group Pretest Treatment Posttest

Experimental group O1 X O2
Control group
O3 O4
Treatment effect = [(O2-O1) - (O4-O3)]

9
 SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN

To gain more confidence in internal validity in experimental

design, it is advisable to set up two experimental groups and
two control groups for the experiment. One experimental
group and one control group can be given both the pretest
and the posttest. The other two groups will be given only the
posttest. Here the effects of the treatment can be calculated
in several different ways. To the extent that we come up with
almost the same results in each of the different calculations,
we can attribute the effects to the treatment. This increases
the internal validity of the results of the experimental design.
This design, known as the Solomon four-group design, is
perhaps the most comprehensive and the one with the least
number of problems with internal validity.
10
 SOLOMONFOUR
SOLOMON FOUR GROUP
GROUP DESIGN
DESIGN MODEL
MODEL
.
Group Pretest Treatment Posttest
1. Experimental O1 X O2
2. Control O3 O4
3. Experimental X
O5
4. Control
O6
Treatment effect (E) could be judged by:
E= (O2-O1)
E= (O2-O4)
E= (O5-O6)
E= (O5-O3)
E= [(O2-O1) - (O4-O3)]
If all Es are similar, the cause-and-effect relationship is highly valid.

11
CONTROLLINGBIAS
CONTROLLING BIASIN
INEXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENTS(no (noother
otherdifferences
differences
otherthan
other thanmanipulated
manipulatedfactors
factorsor
orvariables)
variables)

Matching Groups
One way is to match the experimental and controlled group
subjects (gender, age, education, social status etc.).

Randomization
In randomization, the process by which individuals are drawn
and their assignment to any particular group (treatment or
control) are both random. Objective is to make groups similar
and to avoid biased selection of groups.

12
 CHAPTER
SIX

ELEMENTS OF
RESEARCH DESIGN
13
 1
OBSRVATION
Board area
of research
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
interest
identified

4
3 5 6 7
THEORETICAL
PROBLEM
FRAMEWORK GENERATION SCIENTIFIC DATA COLLECTION
DEFINITION
OF RESEARCH ANALYSIS AND
Research
HYPOTHESES DESIGN INTERPRETATION
problem
Variables clearly
delineated
identified and
labeled
2
8

PRELIMINARY DEDUCTION
DATA GATHERING Hypotheses
Interviewing substantiated?
Literature survey Research question
answered?

No Yes

9 10 11
Managerial
Report Report
Decision
Writing Presentation
Making

14
 THE RESEARCH DESIGN
• A research design is a plan or strategy
of investigation to obtain answers to
research questions or problems.

Matching research questions with sample,

data collection methods, and data
analysis.

15
 THE RESEARCH DESIGN
• A research design is a plan or strategy
of investigation to obtain answers to
research questions or problems.
• It includes an outline of what the
investigator will do from sampling and
data collection to the final analysis of
data.

16
 THE RESEARCH DESIGN
DETAILS OF STUDY MEASURMENT

Purpose of the Types of Investigation Extent of researcher Measurement

(HYPOTHESIS)
Study setting
study Interference and measures
Minimum: Studying events DATA
Establishing: as they normally occur ANALYSIS
Operational
Exploration -Casual relationships Moderate: Some Contrived
definition 1. Feel for data
Description -Correlations interference
items (measure)
Hypothesis testing -Group differences, Maximum: High degree Noncontrived
Scaling
of control (artificial
settings)
PROBLEM STATEMENT

2. Goodness or
data
Unit of analysis
Sampling Time Data-Collection
(Population to be
studied) design horizon method
Probability/ Observation
Individuals nonprobability One-Shot
3. Hypotheses
Dyads (cross-sectional) Interview
testing
Groups Sample
Organizations Size (n) Multishot Questionnaire
Machines (longitudinal)
etc.

17
 THE RESEARCH DESIGN
DETAILS OF STUDY MEASURMENT

Purpose of the Types of Investigation Extent of researcher Measurement

(HYPOTHESIS)
Study setting
study Interference and measures
Minimum: Studying events DATA
Establishing: as they normally occur ANALYSIS
Operational
Exploration -Casual relationships Moderate: Some Contrived
definition 1. Feel for data
Description -Correlations interference
items (measure)
Hypothesis testing -Group differences, Maximum: High degree Noncontrived
Scaling
of control (artificial
settings)
PROBLEM STATEMENT

2. Goodness or
data
Unit of analysis
Sampling Time Data-Collection
(Population to be
studied) design horizon method
Probability/ Observation
Individuals nonprobability One-Shot
3. Hypotheses
Dyads (cross-sectional) Interview
testing
Groups Sample
Organizations Size (n) Multishot Questionnaire
Machines (longitudinal)
etc. Unobtrusive

18
 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
EXPLORATORY STUDY
An
An exploratory
exploratory study
study isis undertaken
undertaken whenwhen notnot
much
much isis known
known about
about the the situation
situation or or
phenomenon
phenomenon in in hand,
hand, or or nono information
information isis
available
available on
on how
how similar
similar problems
problems or or research
research
issues
issues have
have been
been solved
solved inin the
the past.
past.
Exploratory
Exploratory studies
studies are
are also
also necessary
necessary whenwhen
some
some facts
facts are
are known,
known, butbut more
more information
information
isis needed
needed for
for developing
developing aa viable
viable theoretical
theoretical
framework.
framework.
19
 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
EXPLORATORY STUDY
An
An investigation
investigation into
into the
the ways
ways of
of improvement
improvement
of
of quality
quality of
of customer
customer services
services within
within hospitality
hospitality
sector
sector in
in Lahore.
Lahore.

exploratory
exploratory studies
studies result
result in
in aa range
range of
of causes
causes
and
and alternative
alternative options
options for
for aa solution
solution of
of aa
specific
specific problem.
problem.

20
 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
AA descriptive
descriptive study
study isis undertaken
undertaken in in order
order to to describe
describe thethe
characteristics
characteristics ofof the
the variables
variables ofof interests
interests in
in aa situation.
situation. For
For
instance,
instance, aa study
study ofof aa class
class in
in terms
terms of
of the
the percentage
percentage of of
members
members who who are
are inin their
their senior
senior and
and junior
junior years,
years, gender
gender
composition,
composition, ageage groupings,
groupings, number
number of of semesters
semesters leftleft until
until
graduation,
graduation, andand number
number of of business
business courses
courses taken,
taken, cancan bebe
considered
consideredas asdescriptive
descriptivein innature.
nature.

21
 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
AA descriptive
descriptive study
study isis undertaken
undertaken in in order
order toto describe
describe thethe
characteristics
characteristics ofof the
the variables
variables ofof interests
interests in
in aa solution.
solution. For
For
instance,
instance, aa study
study ofof aa class
class in
in terms
terms ofof the
the percentage
percentage of of
members
members who who are
are in
in their
their senior
senior andand junior
junior years,
years, gender
gender
composition,
composition, ageage groupings,
groupings, number
number of of semesters
semesters left
left until
until
graduation,
graduation, andand number
number of of business
business courses
courses taken,
taken, can
can bebe
considered
consideredas asdescriptive
descriptivein innature.
nature.
Example
Example
AA bank
bank manager
manager wants
wants to
to have
have aa profile
profile of
of the
the individuals
individuals who
who have
have
loan
loan payments
payments outstanding
outstanding for
for 66 months
months andand more.
more. ItIt would
would include
include
details
details of
of their
their average
average age,
age, earnings,
earnings, nature
nature of of occupation,
occupation, full-
full-
time/part-time
time/part-timeemployment
employmentstatus,
status,and
andthe
thelike.
like. This
Thismight
mighthelphelphim
himto
to
elicit
elicit further
further information
information or or decide
decide right
right away
away onon thethe types
types ofof
individuals
individualswho
whoshould
shouldbe
bemade
madeineligible
ineligiblefor
forloans
loansin
inthe
thefuture.
future.

22
 HYPOTHESIS STUDY
Studies
Studies that
that engage
engage in in hypothesis
hypothesis testing
testing usually
usually
explain
explain the
the nature
nature of of certain
certain relationships,
relationships, or or
establish
establish the
the differences
differences among
among groupsgroups or or the
the
independence
independence ofof two
two or
or more
more factors
factors in
in aa solution.
solution.

Example
Example
AAmarketing
marketingmanager
managerwantswantsto toknow,
know, thethesales
salesof
of the
the
company
companywill will increase,
increase, ififhe
hedoubles
doublesthetheadvertising
advertising
spending.
spending. Here,
Here, thethemanager
manager would
wouldlike
liketo
toknow
knowthethe
nature
natureof ofthe
therelationship
relationshipthatthatcan
canbebeestablished
establishedbetween
between
advertising
advertisingand andsales
salesby
bytesting
testingthe
thehypothesis:
hypothesis:
IfIf advertising
advertising isis increased,
increased, then
then sales
sales will
will also
also go
go up.
up.
23
 TYPES OF INVESTIGATION (HYPOTHESIS
TESTING)
CAUSAL VERSUS CORRELATIONAL
Causal study: The study in which the researcher wants to
describe the cause of one or more problems is called a causal
study.
Correlational study: When the researcher is interested in
describing the important variables associated with the problem,
the study is called a correlational study.

24
 TYPES OF INVESTIGATION
CAUSAL VERSUS CORRELATIONAL

Causal study: The study in which the researcher wants to

describe the cause of one or more problems is called a causal
study.
Correlational study: When the researcher is interested in
describing the important variables associated with the problem,
the study is called a correlational study.
Example
Example
AAcausal
causalstudy
studyquestion:
question:
Does
Doessmoking
smokingcause
causecancer?
cancer?
AAcorrelational
correlationalstudy
studyquestion:
question:
Are
Aresmoking
smokingand
andcancer
cancerrelated?
related?

25
 EXTENT OF RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE

The extent of interference by the researcher

with the normal flow of work at the
workplace has a direct bearing on whether
the study undertaken is causal or
correlational. A correlational study is
conducted in the natural environment of
the organization with minimum
interference by the researcher with the
normal flow of work.
26
STUDY SETTING: CONTRIVED AND NONCONTRIVED

Noncontrived
Noncontrived settings:
settings: IfIf organizational
organizational research
research
be
be done
done in
in the
the natural
natural environment
environment where where work
work
proceeds
proceeds normally,
normally, the
the research
research isis in
in noncontrived
noncontrived
settings.
settings.
contrived
contrived settings:
settings: IfIf organizational
organizational research
research bebe
done
done in
in artificial
artificial environment
environment the the research
research isis in
in
contrived
contrived settings.
settings.

27
STUDY SETTING: CONTRIVED AND NONCONTRIVED

Noncontrived
Noncontrived settings:
settings: IfIf organizational
organizational research
research
be
be done
done in
in the
the natural
natural environment
environment where where work
work
proceeds
proceeds normally,
normally, thethe research
research isis in
in noncontrived
noncontrived
settings.
settings.
contrived
contrived settings:
settings: IfIf organizational
organizational research
research bebe
done
done in
in artificial
artificial environment
environment the the research
research isis in
in
contrived
contrived settings.
settings.
Correlational
Correlational studies
studies are
are invariably
invariably conducted
conducted
in
in noncontrived
noncontrived settings,
settings, whereas
whereas lab lab
experiments
experiments in in contrived
contrived lab lab settings.
settings.
28
CONTRIVED AND NONCONTRIVED SETTINGS

1. FIELD STUDY: If various factors are examined in the

natural settings in which daily activities going on
as normal with minimum or no researcher interference,
the study is field study (noncontrived).
2. FIELD EXPERIMENT: If cause and effect relationships
are studied with some amount of researcher
interference, but still in the natural settings where
work continues in the normal environment, the
study is field experiment (noncontrived).
3. LAB EXPERIMENT: If the researcher explores cause
and effect relationship not only exercising a high
degree of control but in an artificial and
deliberately created settings (contrived).
29
 EXAMPLE OF
EXAMPLE OF FIELD
FIELD STUDY
STUDY
AA bank
bank manager
manager wants wants to to analyze
analyze thethe relationship
relationship
between interest
between interest rates
rates andand bank
bank deposit
deposit patterns
patterns ofof
clients. She
clients. She tries
tries to to correlate
correlate thethe two
two by by looking
looking atat
deposits into
deposits into different
different kindskinds of of accounts
accounts (such
(such asas
savings, certificates
savings, certificates of of deposit,
deposit, andand interest-bearing
interest-bearing
checking accounts)
checking accounts) as as interest
interest rates
rateschanged.
changed.
This isis aa field
This field study
study where
where the the bank
bank manager
manager hashas merely
merely
taken the
taken the balances
balances in in various
various types
types of
of accounts
accounts and
and
correlated them
correlated them to to the
the changes
changes in in interest
interest rates.
rates.
Research here
Research here isis done
done in in aa noncontrived
noncontrived setting
setting with
with no
no
interference with
interference with thethe normal
normal work work routine.
routine.
30
 EXAMPLE OF
EXAMPLE OF FIELD
FIELD EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT
The bank
The bank manager
manager now now wants
wants toto determine
determine the the cause-and-effect
cause-and-effect relationship
relationship between
between
interestrate
interest rate and
andthetheinducements
inducementsitit offers
offerstotoclients
clientstotosave
saveandanddeposit
depositmoneymoneyininthe the
bank.She
bank. Sheselect
selectbranches
brancheswithin
withinaa10-mile
10-mileradius
radiusfor forthe
theexperiment.
experiment.For For11week
weekonly,
only,
sheadvertise
she advertisethe theannual
annualrateratefor
fornew
newcertificates
certificatesof ofdeposit
depositreceived
receivedduring
duringthatthatweek
weekinin
thefollowing
the followingmanner:
manner:the theinterest
interestrate
ratewould
wouldbe be9%9%ininone
onebranch,
branch,8% 8%ininanother,
another,andand
10% inin the
10% the third.
third. In
In the
the fourth
fourth branch,
branch, thethe interest
interest rate
rate remains
remains unchanged
unchanged atat 5%. 5%.
Withinthe
Within theweek,
week,sheshewould
wouldbe beable
abletotodetermine
determinethe theeffects,
effects,ififany,
any,ofofinterest
interestrates
ratesonon
depositmobilization.
deposit mobilization.
The above
The above would
would be be aa field
field experiment
experiment since since nothing
nothing but but the
the interest
interest rate
rate inin
manipulated,with
manipulated, withall
allactivities
activitiesoccurring
occurringininthe thenormal
normaland andnatural
naturalworkworkenvironment.
environment.
Hopefully,all
Hopefully, allfour
fourbranches
brancheschosenchosenwould
wouldbe bemoremoreor orless
lesscompatible
compatibleininsize, size,number
number
ofdepositors,
of depositors,deposit
depositpatterns,
patterns,and andthe
thelike,
like,sosothatthatthe
theinterest
interestsavings
savingsrelationships
relationshipsare are
not influenced
not influenced by by some
some third
third factors.
factors. But
But itit isis possible
possible that
that some
some other
other factors
factors might
might
affectthe
affect thefindings.
findings.ForForexample,
example,one oneof ofthe
theareas
areasmay mayhave
havemore
moreretirees
retireeswhowhomaymaynot not
have additional
have additional disposable
disposable income
income that
that they
they could
could deposit,
deposit, despite
despite thethe attraction
attraction ofof aa
goodinterest
good interestrate.
rate.The
Thebanker
bankermay maynotnothave
havebeenbeenawareawareof ofthis
thisfact
factwhile
whilesetting
settingupupthe
the
experiment.
experiment.
31
 EXAMPLE OF
EXAMPLE OF LAB
LAB EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT
Thebank
The bankmanager
managernow nowwants
wantstotoestablish
establishthe thecausal
causalconnection
connectionbetween
betweeninterest
interestrates
rates
and saving,
and saving, beyond
beyond aa doubt.doubt. Because
Because of of this
this sheshe wants
wants toto create
create an an artificial
artificial
environment and
environment and trace
trace the
the true
true cause
cause andand effect
effect relationship.
relationship. SheShe recruit
recruit 4040 students
students
whoare
who areall
allbusiness
businessmajors
majorsinintheir
theirfinal
finalyear
yearof ofstudy
studyandandare
aremore
moreor orless
lessofofthe
thesame
same
age. She
age. She splits
splits them
them into
into four
four groups
groups and and gives
gives each
each oneone of
of them
them amount
amount of of $1,000,
$1,000,
whichthey
which theyarearetold
toldthey
theymight
mightutilize
utilizetotobuy
buytheir
theirneeds
needsororsave
saveforforthe
thefuture,
future,ororboth.
both.
She offers
She offers them
them an an incentive,
incentive, interest
interest onon what
what they
they save
save but
but manipulates
manipulates the the interest
interest
rates by
rates by offering
offering aa 6% 6% interest
interest rate
rate onon savings
savings for for group
group 1,1, 8%8% forfor group
group 2,2, 9%
9% forfor
group3,3,and
group andkeeps
keepsthe theinterest
interestatatthe
thelowest
lowestraterateofof1%1%forforgroup
group4.4.
Herethe
Here themanager
managerhas hascreated
createdan anartificial
artificiallaboratory
laboratoryenvironment
environmentand andhashasmanipulated
manipulated
theinterest
the interestrates
ratesforforsavings.
savings.SheShehashasalso
alsochosen
chosensubjects
subjectswith
withsimilar
similarbackgrounds
backgroundsand and
exposuretotofinancial
exposure financialmatters
matters(business
(businessstudents).
students).IfIfthe thebanker
bankerfinds
findsthatthatthe
thesavings
savingsby by
the four
the four groups
groups increase
increase progressively,
progressively, keeping
keeping inin stepstep with
with thethe increasing
increasing rates
rates ofof
interest, she
interest, she would
would be be able
able toto established
established aa causecause andand effect
effect relationship
relationship between
between
interestand
interest andthe
thedisposition
dispositiontotosave.
save.
Inthis
In thislab
labexperiment
experimentwith withthethecontrived
contrivedsettings,
settings,the theresearcher
researcherinterference
interferencehas hasbeen
been
maximal, inasmuch
maximal, inasmuch asas the the setting
setting isis difficult,
difficult, thethe independent
independent variable
variable hashas been
been
manipulated,and
manipulated, andmost
mostexternal
externalcontaminating
contaminatingfactors factorssuchsuchasasage
ageandandexperience
experiencehavehave
beencontrolled.
been controlled.
32
Decisionpoints
Decision pointsfor
forembarking
embarkingon
onan
anexperimental
experimentaldesign
design
Is tracing causal
effects necessary?

Yes Do not undertake an

and if
No experimental design study

Internal validity is Generalizability is Both internal validity and

more important than more important than external validity are
external validity internal validity. important.

Engage in a lab Engage in a field First do a Lab experiment,

experiment. experiment. then, a FIELD experiment.

Are there cost

constraints?

Yes No

Engage in a simpler Engage in a more

experimental design. sophisticated design.
33
 UNITS OF
UNITS OF ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS
The unit of analysis refers to the level of analysis of the data (research question):

If the problem statement focuses on employees motivation in general, then we are interested in
individuals employees in the organization and would have to find out what we can do to raise their
motivation. Here the unit of analysis is individual.

If the researcher is interested in studying two-person interactions, unit of analysis is dyad.

If the problem statement is related to group effectiveness, then the unit of analysis would be at the
group level.

If we compare different departments in the organization, then the data analysis will be done at the
departmental level.

If we compare different organizations, then the data analysis will be done at the organizational
level.

If we compare the different cities of any country, then the data analysis will be at the city level.

If we compare the different countries, then the data analysis will be at the country level. etc.

34
 TIME HORIZON
TIME HORIZON
One Shot or Cross-Sectional Studies
If data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or
months, in order to answer a research question. Called one-shot or cross-
sectional studies.

EXAMPLE
Data were collected from stock brokers between April and June of last year to
study their concerns about instability in stock market. Data with respect to this
particular research had not been collected before, nor will be collected again
from them for this research.

35
 Multishot or Longitudinal Studies
If the researcher might want to study people or phenomena at
more than one point in time in order to answer the research
question or when data on the dependent variable are gathered
at two or more points in time to answer the research question,
the studies are called longitudinal studies.

For instance, the researcher might want to study employees’

behavior before and after a change in the top management, so as
to know what are the effects of the change. Here, because data are
gathered at two different points in time, the study is not cross-
sectional or of the one-shot kind, but is carried longitudinally
across a period of time.

36
 Multishot or Longitudinal Studies
If the researcher might want to study people or phenomena at
more than one point in time in order to answer the research
question or when data on the dependent variable are gathered
at two or more points in time to answer the research question,
the studies are called longitudinal studies.

For instance, the researcher might want to study employees’

behavior before and after a change in the top management, so as
to know what are the effects of the change. Here, because data are
gathered at two different points in time, the study is not cross-
sectional or of the one-shot kind, but is carried longitudinally
across a period of time.

EXAMPLE
One could study the sales volume of a product before and after an advertisement, and
provided other environmental changes have not impacted on the results, one could
attribute the increase in the sales volume, if any, to the advertisement. If there is no
increase in sales, one could conclude that either the advertisement is ineffective or it
will take a longer time to take effect.
37
 EXERCISE
In the following scenarios, determine the following, give reason
also:

1. The purpose of study,

2. The extent of researcher interference,
3. The study settings,
4. The time horizon for the study,
5. The unit of analysis.

• Scenario A
Ms. Fatima, the owner of small business (a women’s dress
boutique), has invited a consultant to tell her how business is
different from similar small businesses within a 15-mile radius
with respect to use of the most modern computer technology,
sales volume, profit margin, and staff training.

38
 EXERCISE
• Scenario B
Mr. Ali, the owner of several restaurants, is
concerned about the wide differences in their
profit margins. He would like to try some
incentive plans for increasing the efficiency
levels of those restaurants that lag behind. But
before he actually does this, he would like to
be assured that the idea would work. He asks
a researcher to help him on this issue.

39