Programmable Logic Controllers

Modern industrial control systems are microprocessor-based programmable systems containing hardware
and software for direct digital control, distributed control, programmable control, and PID action. The
systems are designed not only for continuous monitoring and adjustment of process variables, but also for
sequential control, which is an event-based process, and alarm functions.

Programmable Controller System

Prior to the PLC, standalone devices, such as indicators, controllers, and recorders, are used for monitoring
and control. These devices are still in use in small operations, but are not cost-effective, and are
unsuitable for modern control requirements.
The processor in a PLC system has software that is easily programmable and flexible, making the initial
program, updates, modifications, and changes easy to implement.
Because of the complexity and large number of variables in many process control systems,
microprocessor-based PLCs are used for decision making.
Programmable Controller System

The PLC can be configured to receive a small number of inputs (both analog and digi- tal), and control
a small number of outputs.
The system also can be expanded with plug-in modules to receive a large number of signals, and
simultaneously control a large number of actuators, displays or other types of devices.

PLCs are categorized into low-end, midrange, and high-end

 Low-end is from 64 expandable up to 256 I/os,
 Midrange is expandable up to 2,048 I/os,
 High-end is expandable up to 8,192 I/os.
PLCs have the ability to communicate with each other on a local area network (LAN) or a wide area
network (WAN), and to send operational data to, and be controlled from, a central computer terminal.
 Material flow

Process

Product out Sequential sensors Motors actuators Materials in

On/off signals Control signals

Input modules Controller Output modules

 Output modules are used for actuator control, indicators, alarm outputs, and timing functions, and to
interface between the processor’s output bus and peripheral units.
 The processor not only controls the process but must be able to communicate to the outside world,
as well as to the Foundation Fieldbus for communication to smart sensors.
 The individual control loops are not independent in a process but are interrelated, and many
measured variables may be monitored and manipulated variables controlled simultaneously.
 Several processors also may be connected to a mainframe computer for complex control functions.
 The block diagram of a processor controlling shows two analog loops. The analog output from the
monitors is converted to a digital signal in an ADC.
 The digital signal is selected in a multiplexer and put into memory by the process, awaiting
evaluation and further action.
 Monitor and keyboard

Bus Bus
Input signals Input modules Output modules Control signals
Processor

Memory

Power supplies

Figure Block diagram of programmable controller.

the digital output signal is fed to the actuator through a demultiplexer and con-
verted to an analog signal by a DAC. The processor also will have mass storage for storing process data
for later use or for making charts and graphs. The process also will be able to control a number of
peripheral units and sensors as shown, and per- form alarm functions [4].

Mass storage
Input module
sensor data

Consoles ADC
Loop 1 Process
Bus Multiplexer
Memory
Alarms Demultiplexer ADC
Address
Bus
Printers etc. Processor Loop 2
Network DAC
Control
Address DAC
data
Fieldbus
Output module

Figure Computer-based digitally controlled process.

 Controller Operation
The central processing unit can be divided into the processor, memory, and input and output units or
modules, as shown in Figure. The units are interconnected by a two-way 16-bit data bus, a one-way
address bus, and a one-way enable bus.
The enable and address buses are controlled by the processor, which uses software instructions for its
direction. When addressing an input module, the module is selected with its enable bus code.
The address bus then can be used to select which external input data is to be put onto the two-way data
bus. This data is then transferred to memory to wait for the next step from the software instructions.
Data bus
Figure Block diagram of processing unit.

Input Input Input Output Output Outp ut

unit unit unit unit
unit unit Memory no Processor
no 1 no 11 nono2 2
no 3
2 no 3 no no

Address bus

Enable bus
 The operation cycle in the PLC is made up of two separate modes; these are the I/O scan mode,
followed by the execution mode
I/O scan mode is the period when the processor updates the output control signals, based on the
information received from the previous I/O scan cycle after its evaluation of the signals.
The processor then scans the inputs in a serial mode and updates its internal memory as to the
status of the inputs.
Execution mode follows the I/O scan mode. In this mode, the processor evaluates the input data
stored in memory against the data programmed into the CPU. The programs usually are set up using
ladder networks, where each rung of the ladder is an instruction for the action to be taken for each
given input data level. The rung instructions are sequentially scanned, and the input data evaluated.
The processor then can determine the actions to be taken by the output modules, and puts the data
into memory for transfer to the output modules during the next I/O scan mode.
 The internal control function of the PID module using an analog loop is shown in Figure 14.10. The
analog temperature signal from the furnace is the input to the module, where it can be converted to a
digital signal and recorded in the computer memory, fed to the PID controller via a gain control. It is then
sent to an analog dif- ferencing circuit, where it is compared to the set point signal from the processor.
The furnace signal and set point are subtracted, giving an analog error voltage. The error voltage is fed to
the PID controller. The controller then produces an analog

PID
PID module
DAC Gain adj.
Processor ADC Analog input T
Heater

Set point Furnace

PID controller Analog output

Error

Figure 14.10 Supervisory PID control using an analog control loop.

control voltage to adjust the valve controlling the fuel flow to the furnace. The PID
module could also use digital techniques, in which case, the analog input signal would be converted
into a digital signal, and compared to the set point in a digital comparator to generate the error signal.
The controller will use the error signal to generate a PWM signal to control the furnace fuel actuator [8].
The temperature control module normally controls from 8 to 16 temperature zones. The module is
configured for two-position control (heat on/heat off), or three-position control (heat on/heat off/cool).
The set points are stored in the proces- sor. A typical application is large building HVAC, or controlling the
zone tempera- tures required in plastic injection molding machines.
Position and motion modules enable PLCs to control stepper and servo motors in feedback loops, to
measure and control rotation speeds and acceleration, and to control precision tools. This category of
devices uses high-speed counting, rotational and linear position decoders, and open and closed loop
control techniques, in order to measure axis rotation and linear speed and position..
 •

Ladder Diagrams

The ladder diagram is universally used as a symbolic and schematic way to represent the
interconnections between the circuit elements used in programming a PLC.
The ladder network also is used as a tool for programming the operation of the PLC. The elements are
interconnected between the supply lines for each step in the control process, giving the appearance of
the rungs in a ladder. A number of programming languages are in common use for controllers, as
follows:

Ladder; Instruction list; Boolean ,flowcharts; Functional , blocks; Sequential function charts ;
High-level languages (ANSI, C, structured text).

Switch Symbols
Figure shows the typical switch symbols with
switch number used for the elements in a
ladder diagram. A number of momentary
action switches are shown. These are, from
top to bottom: a push to close [normally
open (NO)] and push to open [normally
closed (NC)].
 Position limit switches sense the position of an object, and close or open when a desired position is
reached. Pressure, temperature, and level switches set limits, and can be designed to open or close when
the set limits are reached. The level switch shown is the lower limit switch (LLS), The upper limit
switch (ULS) or full switch (FS) are not shown. The output from the most common flow meter produces
pulses that go to a counter. The symbol for the meter is shown.
Figure Switch symbols in use for ladder diagrams
Relay and Timing Symbols

Figure the symbol for relays, timers and counters. A control

relay is a circle with the designation CR, followed by the
number of the device to distinguish between the various
relays used. This is shown with the symbols for its NO and
NC contacts. A timer has two sets of contacts: (1) the On-
delay contacts that operate after a time delay, and (2) the
Output Device Symbols:
Off-delay con- tacts that operate as soon as the delay is
A circle and
initiated withreset
the at
letter M and
the end an set
of the appropriate number
time period.
represents a motor. A circle with radiating arms and a
letter to indicate its color (e.g., R = red, B = blue, O =
Orange, and G = green), plus its number represents an
indicator. A solenoid that is used to operate a flow
valve or move an object, or for a similar, unspecified,
Counter and contacts

Figure Symbols for control relays,

timers, counter, and contacts.
Ladder Diagram Example

A jar-filling system is shown in Figure 14.16. The reservoir contains a mixture of two liquids that must
be heated to a preset temperature before the jars can be filled. When the liquid is below a preset level, the
heater must be Off. The incoming liquids must be turned Off when the reservoir is full, and not turned On
until the liquid level reaches the low-level sensor. The filling of the jars cannot proceed until the liquid
reaches a set temperature and above the lower set level in the reservoir. The con- veyor belt moves the jars
into a filling position that is sensed by a limit switch. When in position, the filling starts. When the jar is
full, a level sensor senses the level, and the liquid to the jar turned off. The conveyor belt is then started,
and the next jar is moved into position for filling. Design a ladder diagram for a PLC to perform the above
Load
control function.
Figure 14.15 Logic ladder equivalent of electronic logic gates.
Ladder rung S01, the NO contacts of the temperature sensor TS1, controls relay CR1 when the set
temperature is reached the relay is energized. Ladder rung S02, the NO contacts of the lower limit
level sensor, will energize relay CR2 when the liquid level reaches the set minimum level.
Ladder rung S03, the NC relay contacts of CR1, are in series with the NC contacts of the full sensor
FS1, whose contacts open when the reservoir is full. CR3 is energized, and opens valves SOL 1 and 2 in
rungs S04 and S05 to fill the reservoir. A set of NO contacts of CR3 is in parallel with the NC set of
contacts of CR1. CR3 contacts are closed as it is energized, so that when the liquid level reaches the
lower limit and LLS1 contacts close, CR1 is energized and its NC contacts in rung S03 will open.
1.
CR3 will remain energized until the FS1 contacts open, which deenergizes CR3 and stops the filling. CR3
will not be reenergized until the liquid drops to the lower set limit.
Ladder rung S06, the NO contacts from CR1 and CR2, are connected in series, so that CR4 only will
be energized when the temperature and liquid levels are above the set minimums, which will prevent filling
of the jars until the contacts are energized.
Ladder rung S06, the NO contacts from CR1 and CR2, are connected in series, so that CR4 only will
be energized when the temperature and liquid levels are above the set minimums, which will prevent filling
of the jars until the contacts are energized.
Ladder rung S07 prevents fuel to the heater from being turned On via solenoid SOL3 when the
liquid level is low, and turns Off the fuel when the set temperature is reached.

Ladder rung S08, the NO contacts of the jar full limit switch LS1, energizes relay CR5 when the jar is
full.
Ladder rung S09, the NO contacts of the jar position limit switch LS2, energizes relay CR6 when the
jar is in a filling position.
Ladder rung S0A, SOL4, is energized to fill the jar when CR4 is energized, the position limit switch is
closed, and the jar is not full.
Ladder rung S0B, CR7, is energized when the jar is full. A set of contacts from CR7 are across the full
contacts CR5 to keep CR7 energized until CR6 is deenergized, which prevents CR7 from deenergizing, due
to the liquid level dropping due to motion.
Ladder rung S0C, the conveyor motor M1, is energized when CR4 and CR7 are energized. When CR7 is
deenergized by CR6, a set of contacts on CR6 will supply power to the motor until the next jar is in
position.