Aging

DR. RIHAB ABBAS ALI

MSC. CLINICAL EMBRYOLOGY AND ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNIQUE
Development does not cease once birth has occurred but continues
throughout the stages of life: infancy, childhood, adolescence, and
adulthood. Infancy, the toddler years, and the preschool years are
times of remarkable growth. The preadolescent years, from 6 to 12
years of age, are a time of continued rapid growth and learning.
Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty as the young person
achieves sexual maturity
?What is aging

Aging encompasses the progressive changes from infancy until

eventual death. Gerontology is the science that deals with old age,
the process of aging and the particular problems of old people.
What is the hypothesises behind aging??
Cellular Aging

Aging is a complex process affected by multiple factors. It is

believed that aging is partly genetically preprogrammed. This idea is
supported by the observation that longevity runs in families—that is,
the children of long-lived parents tend to live longer than those of
short-lived parents. As would also be expected, studies show that
identical twins have a more similar life span than non-identical twins
Telomeres

Most types of differentiated cells can divide only a limited number of

times. One factor that may control the number of cell divisions is the
length of the telomeres, sequences of DNA, at the ends of
chromosomes. Telomeres protect the ends of chromosomes from
deteriorating or fusing with other chromosomes. Each time a cell
divides, the telomeres normally shorten, and cells with shorter
telomeres tend to undergo fewer divisions .
Some cells, such as stem cells, possess an enzyme called telomerase,
which replenishes the length of the telomeres, effectively making
stem cells immortal. Cancer cells, which behave in a similar manner
to stem cells, frequently possess an active telomerase enzyme, which
allows them to replicate continuously.
 Mitochondria and Diet

The mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell. As the mitochondria

harvest the energy contained in carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, they
generate free radicals. Free radicals are unstable molecules that carry
an extra electron. To become stable, free radicals donate an electron to
another molecule, such as DNA, proteins (e.g., enzymes), or lipids
found in plasma membranes. Eventually these molecules become
unable to function, and the cell loses internal functions. This may lead
to cell death.
It is also possible to reduce the negative effects of free radicals by
increasing one’s consumption of natural antioxidants, such as those
present in brightly colored and dark-green vegetables and fruits.
Chemicals in nuts, fish, shellfish, and red wine have also been shown
to reduce our exposure to free radicals and slow the aging process.
Damage Accumulation

Another set of hypotheses propose that aging involves the

accumulation of damage over time. Early in the 1900 life span was
shorter than today. This increase in life span is due to better health
care rather than genetic cause because human genes have presumably
not changed much in such a short time. This health care reduce
damage accumulation.
Effect of Age on Body Systems

Aging reduces the ability of an organ system to perform its functions

and in many cases impacts its ability to contribute to homeostasis.
Integumentary System

The number of elastic fibers decrease and their flexibility decrease. There is also
less adipose tissue in the subcutaneous layer; therefore, older people are more likely
to feel cold. Together, these changes typically result in sagging and wrinkling of the
skin. As people age, the sweat glands also become less active, resulting in
decreased tolerance to high temperatures. There are fewer hair follicles, so the hair
thins out. Decrease in the number of melanocytes, making their hair gray and their
skin pale. Some of the remaining pigment cells are larger, and pigmented blotches
(“age spots”) appear on the skin.
Cardiovascular System

Common problems with cardiovascular function are usually related to

diseases, especially atherosclerosis. The heart muscle weakens
somewhat and may increase in size as it compensates for its
decreasing strength. The maximum heart rate decreases, and it takes
longer for the heart rate and blood pressure to return to normal resting
levels following stress. The heart valves have become less flexible.
 Aging also affects the blood vessels. The collagen fiber in the wall of
blood vessels become more rigid plus a frequent decrease in the
internal diameter of arteries due to atherosclerosis, contribute to a
gradual increase in blood pressure with age. Diet low in cholesterol
and saturated fatty acids, along with a sensible exercise program, may
help prevent age-related cardiovascular disease.
Immune System

As people age, many of their immune system functions become

compromised. Because a healthy immune system normally protects
the entire body from infections, toxins, and at least some types of
cancer, some investigators believe that losses in immune function can
play a major role in the aging process.
Digestive System

The digestive system is perhaps less affected by the aging process

than other systems. Because secretion of saliva decreases, more
bacteria tend to adhere to the teeth, causing more decay and
periodontal disease. Blood flow to the liver is reduced, resulting in
less efficient metabolism of drugs or toxins.
Respiratory System

Cardiovascular problems are often accompanied by respiratory

disorders, and vice versa. Decreasing elasticity of lung tissues means
that ventilation is reduced. These effects may not be noticed unless
the demand for oxygen increases, such as during exercise.
Excretory System

Blood supply to the kidneys is reduced. The kidneys become smaller

and less efficient at filtering wastes. Salt and water balance are
difficult to maintain, and the elderly dehydrate faster than young
people. Urinary incontinence (lack of bladder control) increases with
age, especially in women. In men, an enlarged prostate gland may
reduce the diameter of the urethra, causing frequent or difficult
urination.
Nervous System

Between the ages of 20 and 90, the brain loses about 20% of its
weight and volume. Neurons are extremely sensitive to oxygen
deficiency, and neuron death may be due not to aging itself but to
reduced blood flow in narrowed blood vessels. Some studies reveal
that decreased function may occur due to alterations in complex
chemical reactions or increased inflammation in the brain.
Sensory Systems

In general, with aging, more stimulation is needed for taste, smell,

and hearing receptors to function as before. Starting at about age 40,
the lens of the eye does not accommodate as well, resulting in
difficulty focusing on near objects, which causes many people to
require reading glasses as they reach middle age
Musculoskeletal System

Beginning in the twenties or thirties, but accelerating with increasing age, muscle
mass generally decreases, due to decreases in both the size and number of muscle
fibers. Although some of this loss may be inevitable, regular exercise can slow this
decline. Like muscles, bones tend to shrink in size and density with age. Due to
compression of the vertebrae, along with changes in posture, most of us lose height
as we age. A proper diet and a moderate exercise program have been found to slow
the progressive loss of bone mass.
Endocrine System

As with the immune system, aging of the hormonal system can affect
many organs of the body. These changes are complex, however, with
some hormone levels tending to decrease with age, while others
increase.
Reproductive System

Testosterone levels are highest in men in their twenties. After age 30, testosterone
levels decrease by about 1% per year. Extremely low testosterone levels have been
linked to a decreased sex drive, excessive weight gain, loss of muscle mass,
osteoporosis, general fatigue, and depression. Menopause, the period in a woman’s
life during which the ovarian and uterine cycles cease, usually occurs between ages
45 and 55. The ovaries become unresponsive to the gonadotropic hormones
produced by the anterior pituitary, and they no longer secrete estrogen or
progesterone.
As a group, females live longer than males. It is likely that estrogen
offers women some protection against cardiovascular disorders when
they are younger. Males suffer a marked increase in heart disease in
their forties, but an increase is not noted in females until after
menopause, when women lead men in the incidence of stroke. Men
remain more likely than women to have a heart attack at any age,
however.
:References

Human biology 2017.

Thank You