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MEGA
17361506-091
ALINA FATIMA
REPRESENTED TO: DR. KHALID HUSSAIN
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MEGA

MEGA, Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis, is a freely available software

for conducting statistical analysis of molecular evolution and for constructing
phylogenetic trees.
MEGA is an integrated tool for conducting :

• Sequence alignment
• Inferring phylogenetic trees
• Estimating divergence times

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Cont…

• Estimating rates of molecular evolution,

• Inferring ancestral sequences
• Testing evolutionary hypotheses.
 MEGA is used by biologists in a large number of laboratories for
reconstructing the evolutionary histories of species.

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Open Mega Page
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Step#01 5

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# Select Types of Sequence to be Align 6

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Sequence Retrieving 7

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Sequence Alignment Using ClustalW 9

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ClustalW Parameters Setting 10

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Export Alignment to MEGA Format
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Save MEGA format File
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Construction Of Phylogenetic Tree Using
Maximum Likelihood Method 15

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Opening MEGA format File which we Saved
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Parameter Setting For Phylogenetic Tree
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Progressing Tree
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Rectangular Phylogenetic Tree
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Circular Tree Construction From Rectangular Tree 20

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07/19/202
REPRESENTED TO: DR. KHALID HUSSAIN
17361506-091
REPRESENTED BY: ALINA FATIMA
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Data Bases

 Data Bases:
 A structured set of data held in a computer, especially one that is
accessible in various ways.
 Database is a collection of organized data, information and records.
 A collection of data
 represents some aspect of the real world
 logically coherent collection (not a random collection)
 designed, built & populated for a specific purpose
 Database management system: The software that manages the data

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Purpose of Database

 Database is information that a person needs in his personal,

business, social and religious life and the power and purpose of
information is not only in collecting and finding them but more
importantly in using them.

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Kinds of Databases
Structured Database
 It is also called the structured data in
which a record or file of information
arranged in uniform format.
 These databases are usually storage of
information with similar entries such
as a list of persons born in a country,
a medical database of patients’ data,
an inventory database of a company
and many others.
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Free-Form Database
 It is a loose collection of
information, such as those you
will find on the World Wide
Web.
 A collection of your documents
in the computer made from
several programs can be
considered as free-form database.
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Types of Databases
Operational Databases
 It is a dynamic database that is
used by any organization in its
day-to- day operation.
 They are used to collect data,
maintain, modify and delete data.
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Analytical Databases
 It is a static database, where data
is rarely modified.
 This database is often used to
store and track historical data to
make long term projections and
analysis.
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Structured Database Models

 Hierarchical Model
This model can be visualized as a parent –child
relationship wherein a child may only have one
parent but parent can have several other children.
Another way of looking at this model is by
visualizing an inverted tree. The single table acts
as the root of the inverted tree and the other
tables act as branches.
To access the data from one of the tables, one has
to pass through the root table. This model was
popular in the many IBM Information
Management Systems in the 1970s using
mainframe computers.

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Cntd…

 Network Model
This model was developed to address in part the problems of the
hierarchical model.
 As with heirarchical model, it could be visualized as an inverted
tree; however, this model allows many inverted tress sharing
branches but are still part of the same database structure.
As with the parent-child model, the child is allowed to have
multiple parents.
Unlike in the heirarchical model access data begins from the root
table.
In the network model, it allows access of data from any table . This
model was eventually replaced by the relational database model.
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Relational Database Management System

RDBMS is designed to create maintain,

manipulate,, modify and delete information
in a relational database.
As previously mentioned, modern database
utilize the relational database.
Today’s software caters to this type of
structured database.

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SQL

 The Structured Query Language (SQL) is the set of instructions used to interact

with a relational database.
 SQL has three main components:
 The data manipulation language (DML)
 The data definition language (DDL)
 The data control language (DCL).

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The things you can do with RDBMS

 Create a database

 Information storage

 Information retrieval

 Information management

 Information analysis

 Print and share information

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Cntd…

Advantages of DBMS Limitations of DBMS

 Backup & recovery  Complexity
 Data standard  Size
 More information  Cost
 Data sharing & conflict control  Software
 Productivity & accessibility  Hardware
 Maintenance  Conversion
 Performance

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