MENDEL’S LAWS

Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance:

The first systematic approach for the investigation of the
mechanism of inheritance was made by Gregor Johann Mendel,
the father of Genetics in the middle of nineteenth century. He
conducted his experiments with garden pea (Pisum sativum) in
small monastery garden for over seven years (1856-1864).His
brilliant and systematic work with garden pea (Pisum sativum)
resulted in the invention of the principles of inheritance and laid
the foundation of a new branch of biology known as genetics.
Terminology: The various terms used by Mendel and others
related to principles of inheritance is given below:
Hereditary Determinants:
The entities which are responsible for inheritance of
characters from one generation to another are called hereditary
determinants or factors. Such factors are now called as genes.
Mendel observed that 1. Each plant had two factors, one from
each parent for each character and 2. Each sex cell has only one
determinant or factor.
Alleles:
The various forms of a gene are called alleles. Each gene has
usually two alleles. The alleles for one character are located on
corresponding locus on homologous chromosomes. Thus alleles
are the alternative forms of a gene.
Ex. The gene content of the F1 Plant is Tt. These two genes are
called alleles because they are located in the same locus of
homologous chromosomes. So ‘T’ is allelic to’t’ or vice versa.
Main Features of Alleles:
1. Alleles are alternative forms of a gene. They occupy the same
locus on a particular chromosome.
2. Alleles govern the same character of an individual.
3. A haploid cell has single copy of an allele, diploid two and
polyploid more than two for a character.
4. An individual may have identical alleles at the corresponding
locus of homologous chromosomes (homozygous) or two different
alleles (heterozygous).
5. The alleles may be dominant and recessive types or wild and
mutant types.
Gametes:
Gametes refer to a Sex cell or sexual unit. In other words,
sex cells are usually called as gametes. Each sex cell has one
member of a gene i.e. allele. e.g. Sperm is male gamete and egg
is female gamete.

Contrasting Characters:
The individual plant features with marked phenotypic
(observable) difference are known as contrasting characters or
traits, such as red and white flower, tall and dwarf plant stature,
yellow and green seed coat colour etc.
Dominant and Recessive:
When a cross is made between plants having contrasting
characters, only one character is expressed in the hybrid and other is
suppressed. The character which is expressed is called dominant
character and the character which is suppressed is known as
recessive character. For example, when we cross between red
flowered and white flowered plants, the hybrid has red flower. Here
red colour is dominant and white colour is recessive. The dominant
character is represented by capital letter and recessive by small
letter. For example, red colour is represented by R and white by r.
Mendel studied seven characters in garden pea and recorded
dominant and recessive behaviour of all seven characters.
Differences between Dominant and Recessive Genes:
The dominant and recessive genes differ from one another in
three main aspects as given below:
1. Dominant gene expresses in F1, whereas recessive gene is

masked or suppressed in F1.

2. Dominant gene/ allele is represented by capital letter,

whereas recessive gene/ allele by small letter.
3. Dominant character is usually wild type, whereas recessive
character is usually mutant type.
Homozygous:
Individuals having similar alleles on the corresponding
locus of homologous chromosomes are known as
homozygous. There are four main features of such individuals
as given below:
1. They have similar alleles or genes viz. either AA or aa.
2. Produce only one type of gamete, viz. either A or a.
3. Such individuals are pure breeding and produce same type
of individuals on selfing.
4. Have one visible class of individuals on selfing.
Heterozygous:
Individuals having dissimilar alleles on the corresponding
locus of homologous chromosomes are known as
heterozygous. Heterozygous individuals have following main
features:
1.They have dissimilar alleles or genes viz. Aa.
2.Produce two types of gametes, viz. A and a for single gene
difference.
3. Produce three types of offsprings, viz., AA, Aa and aa on
selfing or intermating.
4.Have two visible classes viz., AA/Aa and aa in F2.
 Pure Line:
A plant which produces only one type of offspring on self
pollination. Mendel developed pure lines for purple and white
colour, yellow and green seed colour, round and wrinkled seed
shape etc.

Crossing:
Artificial pollination between plants having contrasting
genes (alleles) for a character is known as crossing and product of
such a cross is known as hybrid or F1( first filial generation).

Depending on the gene pairs involved crosses are of three

types viz. 1. Monohybrid cross, 2. Dihybrid cross and 3. Polyhybrid
cross.
Monohybrid Cross:
A cross involving one gene pair affecting one character. For
example, cross between individuals having purple and white
coloured flowers or yellow and green seed colour. Such crosses
give phenotypic ratio of 3:1 and genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 in F2.

Parents: RR (Purple Flower) X rr (White Flower)

F1→ Rr (Purple)
 Dihybrid Cross:
A cross involving two pairs of gene each pair affecting a
different character. Thus, when inheritance of two characters is
studied simultaneously, the cross involving such characters is
called dihybrid cross. e.g. cross between Yellow round seeded
Plant (YYRR) and Green wrinkled seeded plant (yyrr) is a dihybrid
cross. Such cross gives a phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 and genotypic
ratio of 1:4:6:4:1 in F2.
Parents: YYRR X yyrr

F1→ YyRr (Yellow round

Seeded)
Polyhybrid Cross:
A cross involving three or more gene pairs is termed as polyhybrid
cross. It may include three, four or more gene pairs.
Direct and Reciprocal Cross:
Crossing is of two types based on the way of crossing, viz, direct
cross and reciprocal cross.
A cross between two genotypes/individuals is called direct cross.
When we change the order of individuals in crossing by reversing the
order of male and female, it is called reciprocal cross. e.g.
♂ RR (Red Flower) X ♀ rr (White Flower) → Direct Cross
♀ RR (Red Flower) X ♂ rr (White Flower) → Reciprocal Cross
Back Cross and Test Cross:
The crossing of F1 with one of its parents is called back cross

i.e. cross of F1 with either of its parents. When the F1 is back

crossed to the homozygous recessive parent, it is called test

cross. For example, if we cross between red and white flowered
plants, the F1 will be red as shown below:
Parents: RR (Red Flower) X rr (White Flower)

F1→ Rr (Red)

Test Cross→ Rr (F1) X rr (homozygous recessive parent)

 Crossing of F1 (Rr) with white flowered (rr) plant is known as test
cross. Test cross for single gene difference (monohybrid cross)
produces 1:1 phenotypic ratio in the test cross progeny, whereas with
two gene difference, it will give 1:1:1:1 phenotypic ratio.
Uses of test cross:
1. Test cross verifies the Mendel’s factorial hypothesis
According to Mendel, a monohybrid tall (Tt) produce two kinds of
gametes in equal proportion and recessive parent produce only one
kind of gamete ‘t’. Hence this back cross should give Tall and dwarf
plants in 1: 1 ratio. In actual experiment also we get tall and dwarf in
‘1:1’ ratio. Thus, Mendel’s factorial hypothesis is verified.
2.Test cross is used for identifying the genotype of an unknown
parent.
A tall pea plant may be either homozygous (TT) or
heterozygous (Tt). Its genotype may be determined by test
cross. If the test cross progeny were tall, then the unknown tall
genotype is ‘homozygous’. If that test cross progeny have tall
and dwarf plants in equal proportion, then the unknown
genotype is heterozygous.
Phenotype:
Phenotype refers to the actual characteristic appearance of
an individual. In other words, it refers to the visual characters
such as colour, height, sex etc. For example, purple and white
flower colours are different phenotypes. The main feature of
phenotype is given below:
1.It refers to visual characters like seed colour, seed shape, flower
colour etc.
2.Individuals with similar phenotype may be homozygous (AA) as
well as heterozygous (Aa), hence they may or may not breed
true.
3.For single gene with complete dominance, the observed
phenotypic ratio in F2 is 3:1.
4.Phenotypic classes are always lesser than genotypic classes.
 Genotype:
Genotype refers to the genetic constituent or make up of an
individual such as RR and Rr are different genotypes, though the
flower colour i.e phenotype of both the genotypes is similar (red).
The main features of genotype are given below:
1. It refers to genetic constitutions of an individual.
2. Individuals with homozygous genotypes will always breed true
on selfing.
3. For single gene, the genotypic ratio in F 2 is 1:2:1.

4. Genotypic classes are always higher than phenotypic classes.

For example for single gene difference, there will be two
phenotypic classes and three genotypic classes in F 2.
Principle or Law of Dominance:
When two homozygous individuals with one or more sets of
contrasting characters are crossed, the characters that appear in
the F1 hybrids are dominant characters and those do not appear
in F1 are recessive characters.
Parents: RR (Red Flower) X rr (White Flower)

F1→ Rr (Red)

Here Red Flower colour is dominant as it appears in F1

hybrid and White flower colour is recessive as it is not appeared
in F1 hybrid.
Importance of law of dominance:
The phenomenon of dominance is of practical importance as
the harmful recessive characters are masked by the normal
dominant characters in the hybrids. In Human beings a form of
idiocy, diabetes, haemophilia etc. are recessive characters. A
person hybrid for all these characteristics appears perfectly
normal. Thus harmful recessive genes can exist for several
generations without expressing themselves. Exceptions to Law
of Dominance are the Incomplete Dominance.
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance:
1. Law of Segregation:(First Law)
This law states that alleles segregate or separate from each
other during gamete formation and pass on to different gametes in
equal number. In other words, when alleles for two contrasting
characters come together in a hybrid, they do not blend ,
contaminate or affect each other while together. The different
genes separate from each other in a pure form, pass on to different
gametes formed by a hybrid and then go to different individuals in
the offspring of the hybrid. Thus main features of this law are as
follows:
1.When a dominant and a recessive allele of a gene come together
in a hybrid after crossing between two plants having contrasting
characters, they do not mix or blend together.
2.They remain together in pure form without affecting each other.
For this reason, law of segregation is also known as law of purity of
gametes.
3.They separate into different gametes in equal number. Each
gamete has only one type of allele (say either Aor a).
4.Separation of two alleles of a gene during gamete formation takes
place usually due to the separation of homologous chromosomes
during meiosis (anaphase I), because alleles are located on the
chromosomes.
5. With complete dominance, segregation leads to phenotypic

ratio 3:1 in F2 for characters governed by single gene, and 9:3:3:1

ratio for characters controlled by two genes.

6. If crossing over does not take place, segregation of genes takes

place during anaphase I. If crossing over occurs, segregation of

genes will take place during anaphase II.

Example:
When we make a cross between red (RR) and white (rr) flowered
plants, we get red colour of flower in F1. In the F1 both the alleles R and r

remain together without blending or mixing with each other, though only
the effect of dominant allele is visible. In F2 allele for red flower colour and

white flower colour segregate during gamete formation and pass on to the
gametes in equal number. Thus two types of gametes, viz. R and r are
formed. Each gamete has either R or r allele. When the F 1 is self pollinated,

individuals with three genotypes, viz. RR, Rr and rr are obtained in F2. Here

RR and Rr are all red and only rr individuals are white. Thus, a phenotypic
ratio of 3 red: 1 white is obtained. The overall mechanism is representd
below:
 Parents: RR (Red Flower) X rr (White Flower)

F1→ Rr (Red)

F2
R r
R RR Rr
Red Red

r Rr rr
Red White

Fig: Segregation of gene for red and white colour

 When selfed seeds of RR were grown in F3, they all produced

all the true breeding individuals for red flower colour. The Rr
individuals showed segregation in F3 similar to segregation in F2

generation. i.e in 3 red:1white ratio. Individuals with rr

genotypes were found true breeding for white flower colour
when their selfed seeds were raised in F3 generation.
2. Law of Independent Assortment:
This law states that when two pairs of gene entered in F1
combination, both of them have their independent dominant
effect. These genes segregate when gametes are formed, but the
assortment occurs randomly and quite freely. Thus main features
of this law are given below:
1.This law explain simultaneous inheritance of two plant
characters.
2.In F1 when two genes controlling two different characters,
come together, each gene exhibits independent dominant
behaviour without affecting or modifying the effect of other
gene.
3.These gene pairs segregate during gamete formation
independently.
4.The alleles of one gene can freely combine with the alleles of
another gene. Thus, each allele of one gene has an equal chance
to combine with each allele of another gene.
5.Each of two gene pairs when considered separately exhibits
typical 3:1 segregation ratio in F2 generation. This is a typical
monohybrid segregation ratio.
6.Random or free assortment of alleles of two genes leads to
formation of new gene combinations.
Example:
When plants of garden pea with yellow round seeds are
crossed with plants having green wrinkled seeds, we get yellow
round seed in F1. Thus yellow colour of seed exhibits dominance
over green and round seeds shape over wrinkled independently.
The F1 produces four types of gametes, viz. yellow round (YR),
yellow wrinkled (Yr), green round (yR) and green wrinkled (yr).
Selfing of F1 gives rise to all above four types of individuals in
9:3:3:1 ratio .
 The behaviour of all these genotypes was studied in F3
generation. Out of nine yellow round individuals only one (YYRR)
was found true breeding in F3 generation. The other eight
individuals showed segregation of various types. Similarly, out of 3
yellow wrinkled individuals only one (YYrr) bred true and others
segregated in 3:1 ratio. Same thing happened with green round
individuals. The green wrinkled individual was also true breeding.
 YYRR X yyrr
Yellow Round ↓ Green Wrinkled

F1→ YyRr (Yellow round Seeded)

YR Yr yR yr
F2
YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr
(YR) (YR) (YR) (YR)
Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr
(YR) (Yr) (YR) (Yr)
yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr
(YR) (YR) (yR) (yR)
yr YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr
(YR) (Yr) (yR) (yr)

Fig: Independent assortment of two pairs of genes in garden pea

Table: Behaviour of different F2 individuals in F3 generation

Genotypes No Phenotypes Segregation in F3

YYRR 1 Yellow Round All yellow round
YYRr 2 Yellow Round 3 yellow round:1 yellow wrinkled
YyRR 2 Yellow Round 3 yellow round:1 green round
YyRr 4 Yellow Round 9:3:3:1
YYrr 1 Yellow Wrinkled All yellow wrinkled
Yyrr 2 Yellow Wrinkled 3 yellow wrinkled: 1 green wrinkled
yyRR 1 Green Round All green round
yyRr 2 Green Round 3 green round: 1 green wrinkled
yyrr 1 Green Wrinkled All green wrinkled
Characters studied by Mendel in pea plants:

Sl. No Characters Dominant Recessive

1 Seed Shape Round Wrinkled
2 Seed colour Yellow Green
3 Flower colour Purple White
4 Pod colour Green Yellow
5 Pod shape Inflated Constricted

6 Position of flower Axial Terminal

7 Length of stem Tall Dwarf