Methods and Techniques of

Research:
An Introduction of the Course Program for
Thesis Writing
 Definition of Research:
• Research is “a process of scientific thinking that leads to the
discovery or establishment of new knowledge or truth.

• It is not a subjective expression of ideas or opinion.” According to

these authors, a scientific thinking has these characteristics:

(1) It is based on facts;

(2) It starts from a complex of problems;
(3) It is free from personal bias or opinion; and
(4) It uses objective measurement. (Aquino, 2006, p.1).
 Definition of Research:

• “Careful critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in

technique and method according to the nature
and condition of the problem identified, directed
toward the clarification or resolution (or both) of
a problem.” (Good, p.464).
 Definition of Research:

• “Research in its broadest sense is an attempt to gain

solutions to problems.

• More precisely, it is the collection of data in a

rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of
prediction or explanation.” (Treece and Treece, p. 3)
 Definition of Research:
• Formulated in a more comprehensive form, research may be defined as a
• Purposive;
• Systematic and;
• Scientific process of:
• Gathering;
• Analyzing;
• Classifying;
• Organizing;
• Presenting and:
• Interpreting data for the:
• solution of a problem,
• for prediction,
• for invention,
• for the discovery of truth, or
• for the expansion or
• verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of the quality
of human life.
 Purposes of Research
(Aims, Objectives, Goals):
• The main or principal purpose and goal of research is “the
preservation and improvement of the quality of human
life”.

• All kinds of research are directed towards this end. “The

purpose of research if to serve man,”

• “The goal of research is the good life.” (Good and Scates, pp.
9, 14)
• Specifically:

1. To discover new facts about known phenomena.

• Ex: Alcohol is a known phenomenon and research may turn it into

a kind of fuel equal in quality to gasoline.

2. To find answers to problems which are only partially

solved by existing methods and information.

• Ex: Cancer is a serious disease which is only partially cured by

present methods but due to intensive and continuous research, the
disease may be eradicated later on.
3. To discover previously unrecognized substances or
elements.

• Ex: Previously we had only 92 elements but due to research we now

have more than 100.

4. Discover pathways of action of known substances and

elements.

• Ex: Due to research we come to know the dangers from the abusive use
of unprescribed drugs and some poisonous substances.
5. To order related, valid generalizations into systematized
science.

• Ex: The result of this purpose research is the science we are now
studying in school.

6. To provide basis for decision-making in business,

industry, education, government, and in other
undertakings. One approach in decision-making is the
research approach (This is basing important decisions
upon the results of research)
7. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.

• Ex: Edison was curious about how a hen hatches her eggs and made a
research on that and he invented the incubator.

8. To find answers to queries by means of scientific

methods.

• Ex: One important question that may be asked which can be answered
only by means of research is: In what setting is life expectancy higher, in
the city or in the barrio?
9. To acquire a better and deeper understanding about
one phenomenon that can be known and understood
better by research.

• Ex: Why women are generally smaller than men?

10. To expand or verify existing knowledge. This usually

happens when researches are replicated. Newly
discovered facts may be found to expand knowledge
gained from a previous research or verified if the same
facts are found.
11. To improve educational practices for raising the quality
of school products.

• Ex: Research surveys often result in the revision of curricula and

instructional innovations to maximize the effectiveness of the learning
process.

12. To promote health and prolong life.

• Ex: This purpose is very obviously demonstrated in pharmaceutical,

nutritional, and medical research.
13. To provide man with more of his basic needs – more and better
food, clothing, shelter, etc.

• Ex: The work of the International Rice Research Institute in Los Baños, Laguna is a
good example of this purpose.

14. To make work, travel, and communication faster, easier, and more
comfortable.

• Ex: Due to research airplanes are made to fly faster, land vehicles to run faster, labor-
saving machines have been invented and improved, radio and television bring news
immediately to the remote areas, and more wonders of electricity are making life easier
and better.
 Characteristics of a Good Research:
• Research is systematic
• Research is controlled
• Research is empirical
• Research is analytical
• Research is objective, unbiased, and logical
• Research employs hypothesis
• Research employs qualitative or statistical methods
• Research is original work
• Research is done by expert
• Research is accurate investigation, observation and description
• Research is patient and unhurried activity
• Research requires an effort-making capacity
• Research requires courage
Characteristics of a Good Research:

Research is systematic

It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to

the discovery of truth, solution of a problem, or whatever
is aimed to be discovered.
Characteristics of a Good Research:
Research is controlled

All variables except those that are tested or being

experimented upon are kept constant (not allowed to
change or vary) so that the changes made on the
subjects of the study can be attributed only to the
experimental variable. This is especially true in an
experimental research.
Characteristics of a Good Research:
Research is empirical

All the procedures employed and the data gathered are

perceived in the same manner by all observers. For
instance, one says that there are five persons in the
room, all agree to the existence of the five persons.
However, if one says that there are five ghosts in the
room; one or more at all may believe it because not all
people believe in ghosts. Ghosts are examples of data
that are not empirical.
Characteristics of a Good Research:
Research is analytical

There is a critical analysis of all the data used so that there

is no error in their interpretation.
Characteristics of a Good Research:
Research is objective, unbiased, and logical

All the findings and conclusions are logically based on

empirical data and no effort is made to alter the results of
the research.
Characteristics of a Good Research:
Research employs hypothesis

This is to guide the investigation process. In experimental

studies, hypotheses are expressly stated but in
descriptive studies, the specific sub-problems or specific
questions serve as the hypotheses and the hypotheses
are tested and not proved.
Characteristics of a Good Research:
Research employs qualitative or statistical methods

Data are transformed into numerical measures and are

treated statistically to determine their significance or
usefulness.
Characteristics of a Good Research:
Research is original work

Except in historical research, data are gathered from

primary sources or first-hand sources and not from
secondary sources (usually printed materials such as
books, or theses, etc.)
Characteristics of a Good Research:
Research is done by expert

The researcher uses valid and carefully designed

procedures, valid data-gathering instruments, and valid
data. He subjects his data to expert scrutiny.
Characteristics of a Good Research:
Research is accurate investigation, observation and
description

In fact, every research activity must be done accurately so

that the findings will lead to the formulation of scientific
generalizations. All conclusions are based on actual
evidence.
Characteristics of a Good Research:
Research is patient and unhurried activity

This is to ensure accuracy. Research that is hurriedly done

or conducted carelessly due to racing against time may
lead to shaky conclusions and generalizations.
Characteristics of a Good Research:
Research requires an effort-making capacity

No research can be conducted without the exertion of

much effort. No one without any effort-making capacity
can conduct a research because research involves much
work and time.
Characteristics of a Good Research:
Research requires courage

Research requires courage because the researcher

oftentimes undergoes hazards, discomforts and the like.
At times the researcher encounters public and social
disapproval. Also, disagreements with colleagues may
arise.
 Kinds and Classifications of Research:
• According to purpose
• According to goal
• According to the levels of investigation
• According to the type of analysis
• According to scope
• According to choice of answers to problems
• According to statistical content
• According to time element
• Other types and kinds of research are named accord
ing to the area or field of activity
Kinds and Classifications of Research:
• According to purpose:

• Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of

determining the future operation of the variables under
investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for
the better. “Predictive research proposes to give the result from
one specific educational practice or pattern and seeks to
establish a close statistical connection between characteristics
of students and a prediction of educational outcome.”
• Directive research determines what should be done
based on the findings. This is to remedy an
unsatisfactory condition if there is any.

• Illuminative research is concerned with the interaction

of the components of the variable being investigated,
as for example, “interaction of the components of
educational systems and aims to show the
connections among, for example, student
characteristics, organizational patterns and policies,
and educational consequence.”
Kinds and Classifications of Research:
• According to goal.

• Basic or pure research is done for the development of

theories or principles. It is conducted for the
intellectual pleasure of learning. Much of this kind of
research has been done in psychology and sociology.
(Manuel and Medel, p. 18)
• Applied research is the application of the results of
pure research. This is testing the efficacy of theories
and principles. For instance, a principle says that
praise reinforces learning. To determine if this is true,
one conducts an experiment in which there are two
classes. In one class, he uses praise but in the other
class there is no praise at all. All other things are kept
equal. At the end of the experimental period, he gives
the same test to the two classes. If the scores of the
pupils in the class with praise are significantly higher
than those in the class without praise, then the
principle is true.
Kinds and Classifications of Research:
• According to the levels of investigation.

• In exploratory research, the researcher studies the

variables pertinent to a specific situation.

• In descriptive research, the researcher studies the

relationships of the variables.

• In experimental research, the experimenter studies

the effects of the variables on each other.
Kinds and Classifications of Research:
• According to the type of analysis.

• In the analytic approach, the researcher attempts to

identify and isolate the components of the research
situation.

• The holistic approach begins with the total situation,

focusing attention on the system first and then on its
internal relationships.
Kinds and Classifications of Research:
• According to scope.

• Under this category is action research. This type of research is

done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem which is
not so big. It is almost problem solving.

• In education, it is a firing-line or on the job type of problem solving

or research used by the teachers, supervisors, and administrators
to improve the quality of their decisions and actions; it seeks more
dependable and appropriate means of promoting and evaluating
pupil growth in line with specific and general objectives and
attempts to improve educational practices without reference to
whether findings would be applicable beyond the group studied.
(Good, p. 464)
Kinds and Classifications of Research:
• According to choice of answers to problems.

• In evaluation research, all possible courses of action

are specified and identified and the researcher tries to
find the most advantageous.

• In developmental research, the focus is on finding or

developing a more suitable instrument or process
than has been available.
Kinds and Classifications of Research:
• According to statistical content.

• Quantitative or statistical research is one in which

inferential statistics are utilized to determine the
results of the study. Inferential statistics such as
correlation, chi-square analysis of variance, etc. are
used to test the hypothesis. This type of research
usually includes comparison studies, cause-and-effect
relationships, etc.
• Non-quantitative research. This research in which the
use of quantity or statistics is practically null. This is
especially true in anthropological studies where
description is usually used. Descriptive data are
gathered rather than quantitative data.
Kinds and Classifications of Research:
• According to time element.

• Historical research describes what was.

• Descriptive research describes what is.
• Experimental research describes what will be.

Historical, descriptive, and experimental researches are the three

major research methods.

All other methods, kinds, and types of research whatever they are
called fall under these three major methods.
Kinds and Classifications of Research:
Other types and kinds of research are named
according to the area or field of activity.

Hence, we have sociological research, social research,

psychological research, anthropological research,
physical research, chemical research, industrial
research, economics research, health research, nursing
research, curriculum research educational research, and
countless others.
 Some Hindrances to Scientific Inquiry:
• Tradition
• Authority
• Inaccurate observation
• Overgeneralization
• Selective observation
• Made-up information
• Illogical reasoning
• Ego-involvement in understanding
• Mystification
• To err is human
• Dogmatism
 Tradition:

• This is accepting that customs, beliefs,

practices, and superstitions are true
and are parts of the daily lives of men.
• For example: there is a traditional
belief among some women that women
who are conceiving should avoid
eating dark or black foods such as
black berries because their children
will become dark also.
• This may be true or not, but many
women believe and practice it without
verifying its truth.
Authority:
• This is accepting without question, an opinion about a
certain subject which is given by someone who is
considered an authority on the subject.

• If an ordinary person says that kissing transmits colds,

he is not believed much, he may even be laughed at. On
the other hand, when a doctor says the same thing, he is
believed without question.
Inaccurate Observation:
• This is describing wrongly what is actually observed.

• For instance, in the dead of a moonlit night, a man sees

a shadow in the form of a person and the man concludes
at once without any investigation that he has seen a
ghost. He does not investigate anymore.
Overgeneralization:
• This is establishing a pattern out of a few instances.

• For example: when one sees one or two Ilocano

husbands who are hardworking, responsible, and
trustworthy, then he concludes that Ilocano husbands
are hardworking, responsible and trustworthy.
Selective Observation:
• This is persisting to believe an observed pattern from an
overgeneralization and ignoring other pertinent patterns.

• For example: one sees for the first time one or two
prosperous Chinese stores beside a poor, struggling
Filipino store. He forms the conclusion that the Chinese
are more shrewd and more competitive than Filipinos.
Made-up Information:
• This is making up information to explain away confusion.

• For example: Suppose a buyer buys from a store, goods

worth P50.00 and gives to the storekeeper a P100.00
bill. The storekeeper mistakenly gives a change of
P40.00. The buyer goes away without counting the
change but when he gets home he finds that the change
is short of P10.00. Instead of going back to the store to
find out why he has a wrong change, he concludes that
the storekeeper is a cheater and the members of his
family are also cheaters.
Illogical Reasoning:
• This is attributing something to another without any
logical basis.

• For instance: because of the extended good weather it

may rain at the weekend. Or, because it is sunny it will
not rain that day. Or, when a woman is believed to be a
sorcerer.
• These are beliefs without any logical basis and no effort
is exerted to verify them.
Ego-involvement in Understanding:
• This is giving an explanation when one finds himself in
an unfavorable situation.

• For instance: when foreigners make a slur on Filipinos,

the latter counter that, that is racial discrimination without
investigating whether the slight is true or not.
Mystification:
• This is attributing to supernatural power, the phenomena
that cannot be understood.

• This is accepting that there are things which are beyond

human intelligence to understand and which are exerted
to make a scientific inquiry.
To Err is Human:
• This is an attitude that admits the fallibility of man.
• When a man renders a wrong decision or commits
mistake, he merely leans on the saying “To err is
human.”
• He does not make any effort anymore to study why he
committed the error, how he committed the error, the
implications of his error, how he can correct his error and
how to make more sound decisions in the future.
Dogmatism:
• This is an unwritten policy of certain institutions and
governments prohibiting the study of topics that are
believed to run counter to the established doctrines of
such institutions or governments.
 The Scientific Method of Research:
• Determining (recognizing/ identifying) the problem;
• Forming (formulating) a hypothesis;
• Doing the library research;
• Designing the study;
• Developing the instruments for collecting data;
• Collecting the data;
• Determining implications and conclusions from the findings;
and
• Making recommendations for further research.
Initial Parts of the Research Paper:
• Tile Page
• Acknowledgment
• Approval Page
• Table of Contents
• List of Tables
• List of Figures
Main Body Parts of the Research Paper :
• Chapter 1: THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF
LITERATURE AND STUDIES

• Chapter 2: METHODOLOGY

• Chapter 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

• Chapter 4: SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS

AND RECOMMENDATIONS
 Body Parts of a Research Paper :
Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND STUDIES

• Introduction
• Background of the Study (optional)
• Review of Literature and Studies
• Synthesis
• Theoretical / Conceptual Framework
• Statement of the Problem / Statement of Objectives
• Hypothesis
• Scope and Delimitation of the Study
• Significance of the Study
• Definition of Terms
 Chapter 2
METHODOLOGY

• Research Design
• Population and Locale of the Study
• Sampling Technique
• Research Instrument
• Evaluation of Research Instrument
• Data Gathering Procedures
• Statistical Treatment / Analysis of Data
 Chapter 3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results and discussion section includes short description of the

methods employed followed by the presentation of data. All relevant
results, including those that run counter to the hypothesis must be
mentioned.

Individual scores or raw data, with the exception, for example, of

single-case designs or illustrative samples are not included.

Discussion of the implications of the results is not appropriate at this

point. The problems encountered passed in the study will be
answered in this chapter.
• Tables and Figures, are meant to illustrate the results of the study
and thus shorten the text. Construct a table of data which provides
exact values and presents complex data and analyses in a format
that is familiar to the reader. Use Hindu-Arabic when citing
consecutively in the text as figure 1, figure ; table 1. table 2, etc.

• A caption stating how the table or figure was constructed including

the key findings should be stated.

• Figures and tables should be oriented vertically in a portrait mode.

• Scale and form of figures can have a great influence on the resulting
interpretation of the data and thus should be presented accurately.
• Discussion, this part presents the analysis and interpretations or
gathered data that answer the questions post in the study.

• Each problem/ question or objective is answered through tabular

presentation, its textual following interpretation.

• In problems or objectives that require inferential statistics or complex

statistical treatment, tabular presentations follow the format of the
statistical treatment. The interpretation depends on the significance
of the values relative to differences, relationship/ association or the
variables being compared and treated at certain levels of
significance.

• It should be noted however that results of the study or statistical

findings found similar/ parallel to the reviewed literature and studies
should be mentioned/ cited. This is to prove that the reviewed
literature and studies lend support to the study at hand.
• Statistical Presentations, an effective statistical presentation
makes it easy for the readers to understand and interpret the data
as well as the data used to test a hypothesis.

• Statistical tests relate directly to the hypothesis. In presenting

statistical results, state whether the results support the hypothesis
and then give the data and statistics that allowed you to arrive at
such conclusion.
 Chapter 4
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

• Summary of the Study

• This part of the chapter presents the research problem and
specific sub-problems, hypothesis, research design,
respondents, research instruments including validation. Data-
gathering procedures, and statistical tools.

• All presentations in the summary must be brief so that they will

not duplicate chapters 1 and 2 of the study. The summary is
essential as a benchmark in the presentation of findings,
conclusions and recommendations for systematic, logical and
consistent results (Vizcarra, 2003)
• Findings of the Study
• The researcher presents the summary of the answers to the specific problems. This section
contains significant numbers/percentages and also statistical values used in testing the
hypothesis of the study. At also states/ justifies why the hypothesis are accepted or rejected.

• Findings of the study are presented, discussed and analyzed including their implications and
relationships or differences with reviewed literature. In the findings of the study only specific
results are included – both qualitative and quantitative without any explanations or reasons.

• They are presented as they were organized and categorized in the specific sub-problems of
the study. If there are five specific problems, naturally there are also five findings.

• Avoid irrelevant, indirect or unnecessary findings because these were carefully treated in the
interpretation of data.

• Furthermore, findings must be written in the past tense. State descriptive and qualitative
findings if necessary (Vizcarra, 2003)
• Conclusions
• After a careful analysis of the findings, the researcher writes the conclusions
drawn from the study which answers the primary objective or purpose of the
paper. The general conclusion is presented in the first paragraph.

• Conclusions must be written in the present tense. They are stated based on
the findings of the study.

• There is a need for careful analysis in identifying them so that they will not
appear as findings or recommendations.

• They are made in a general statement which reflects the results of the study.

• If there are five specific problems, there should also be five conclusions. If
there are sub-topics under one sub-problem, you may or may not present
them separately. You can lump them in one conclusion if applicable
(Vizcarra, 2003)
• Recommendations
• The recommendations of the study are based on the findings and
conclusions. The number of findings and conclusions must also be the
number of recommendations if possible.

• However, the researcher may lump them in one paragraph if the

recommendation made in one sub-problem is applicable to the others.

• The recommendations must be specific and point out the direct

agency or people involved like administrators, teachers, students, and
researchers for possible future action. They must be carefully stated
so that they will not appear as the importance of the study (Vizcarra,
2003)

• After the conclusions, the researcher enumerates the

recommendations or suggestions offered by the study, i.e. further
research implications like policy formulation, program development
among others.
 REFERENCES
Ariola, Mariano M. (2006). Principles and Methods of Research. Rex Bookstore,
Sampaloc, Manila.

Calderon, Jose F. and Expectacion C. Gonzales. (1993). Methods of Research

and Thesis Writing. National Bookstore.

Garcia, Carlito D. and Arnulfo Aaron R. Reganit. (2010). Developing

Competencies in Research and Thesis Writing. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.
Mandaluyoing City.

Research and Development Center. (2009). Thesis Manual for Undergraduate

Students. University of Perpetual Help System DALTA, Las Piñas Printing.

Vizcarra, Florante O. (2003). Introduction to Educational Research Great Books

Trading, Quezon City.
 APPENDIX A
Sample Questionnaire
 CURRICULUM VITAE
2” x 2” scanned
recent, colored
picture

Name :
Address :
Contact Number :
Date of Birth :
Place of Birth :
Civil Status :
Religion :

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Elementary :
Secondary :
Tertiary :
THE END