Module III

Noise in Physical systems – Noise Mechanisms –

Ultrasonics: Production – Magnetostriction and
Peizoelectric methods –
Detection of Ultrasonic waves –
Acoustic grating – Ultrasonic interferrometer

Module IV
Thermal Expansion – Thermal Stress –
Bimetals – Heat transfer in solids & thermal
conductivity – Compound media – Forbe’s
and Lee’s method: theory and experiment
 Reverberation time
• Reverberation time: the time taken for the sound to decrease to one millionth
(1/106, ie by 60 dB) of its initial value after the source had been cut-off.
0.165 V 0.165 V
T or T S – area of the
A a S absorbing surfaces

and
Sound energy absorbed by the surface
absorption coefficien t ' a ' 
Total energy incident on the surface

• According to the equation the reverberation time is

• - directly proportional to the Volume of the hall
• - inversely proportional to the area of absorbing surfaces
• - inversely proportional to the absorption coefficient of the individual
surfaces
• therefore smaller the hall, lesser should be the reverberation time. Typically a
reverberation time of 1 to 1.05 s is most suitable for a hall of volume less than 350
m3
 Acoustics of buildings
• Sound engineering becomes very important when designing a hall either
for speech or music purposes. The bottom line in designing an
acoustically good building is to see that the sound is distributed uniformly
inside the room with every single person hearing the sound clearly.
• An auditorium or hall is said to be acoustically better if it satisfies the
following conditions
• - uniform distribution of sound along with correct loudness and quality
even when the hall is full or empty
• - no overlapping of syllables
• - no external or internal noise disturbance
• - no echoes or resonance
• - optimum reverberation time
• - no maxima or minima of sound in the hall
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE
ACOUSTICS OF A BUILDING
• Acoustics of a building are affected by various factors.
• They are
• - reverberation time
• - loudness
• - focusing
• - echo
• - echelon effect
• - resonance
• - noise
 Reverberation time
• Reverberation time is used to determine how quickly the sound decays in a
room. It depends on the physical volume and the surface materials (chairs,
curtains etc.) present in a room. The value of the reverberation time plays a
very crucial part in describing the acoustical nature of a building.
• Control of reverberation time 
• A large reverberation time can be reduced by the following ways
• - providing windows and ventilators
- using heavy curtains with folds
• - decreasing the volume of the hall
• - covering the room with sound absorbing materials like felt, fibre board,
glass wool etc.
• - covering the floor with carpets
• - having a large audience
 Loudness
• It is a degree of sensation produced in the ear. If the
intensity (and hence the loudness) is weakened then
it is possible for the sound to go below the level of
audibility. It is required that sufficient loudness in
every part of a hall is present for satisfactory
hearing.

Remedies
The increase in loudness can be achieved by the following ways
- to get good loudness, maximum reflection from the stage is desirable. This can be
done by placing a large sounding board behind the speaker facing the audience.
- large polished reflecting surfaces immediately above the speaker are also helpful
- use of good quality loudspeakers
- low ceilings can also help to reflect the sound towards the audience
- the wall surface at the speaker’s end should be given a parabolic shape, which enables
almost uniform spread of sound intensity in every part of the room
 Focusing
• Concentration of sound waves at any particular
region in a hall can happen if the hall contains
curved surfaces on the ceiling. This focusing of
sound waves will produce a maximum intensity of
sound at the focal point of the curved surface and
zero intensity at some other place. This non-uniform
s
distribution of sound intensity in unwanted and L
hence has to corrected

Remedies
To correct the problem, convex surfaces are to be avoided and either flat or
concave surfaces should be used while designing an auditorium . In case the
aesthetic design requires such a shape, then the surface should not be highly
polished or it has to be covered with sound absorbing materials.
 Echoes
• An echo is the repetition of the original sound by a reflecting surface. An
echo is produced when the reflecting surface is more than 17 m away
from the sound source or the time interval between the two sounds is
about 1/7th of a second. In either of the two cases the reflected sound is
heard little later as a distinct repetition of the original sound causing
confusion to the listener. (The reflected sound is heard along with the
original sound).

Remedies
Echoes can be avoided by covering the ceiling and floors with
sound absorbing materials.
 Echelon effect
• The sound produced in front of a structure with regular spacing like
staircases, or a set of railings may produce a musical note due to
the regular repetition of sound (echoes) along with original sound.
This makes the original sound unintelligible and confusing. Such an
effect is known as “echelon effect”.

Remedies
Echelon effect can be
minimized and avoided by
avoiding regular repeating
structures or covering them
with sound absorbing
materials like, carpets etc
 Resonance
• Sometimes window-panes, loosely fitted wooden portions and wall
separators, hollows and crevices etc. start vibrating by absorbing
frequencies from the sound produced in the hall. When the natural
frequency of the vibrating surface is matched by a frequency of the
sounding note, the surface is set into forced vibrations and resonance is
created. This resonance amplifies the vibrations and the original sound is
distorted due to the resulting interference and hence this leads to
unpleasant hearing.

Remedies
Vibrating loose objects may be identified and sound insulation
may be provided
 Noise
• Any unwanted sound that reaches our ear can
be termed as a noise. There are three types of
noises
• - Air-borne noises
• - Structure borne noises
• - Inside noises
 Air-borne noises
• Noises that come from the outside through open windows, ventilators,
doors etc are called as air-borne noises or outside noises. This is more
common in a densely populated area or a room beside an area with
heavy traffic

Remedies
- Using double layered doors, windows and walls with sound
absorbing materials in between them.
- Allot proper places for the doors and windows.
- Air-condition the hall and ensure it is perfectly closed.
-Use heavy glasses in doors and windows
-By providing double walled construction, floating floor
construction, suspended ceiling construction, etc.
-By closing the openings for pipes and ventilators
 Structure borne noise
• Any noises that can be conveyed through the structure of the building are
known as a structure borne noises. The sources of these are produced
either inside the building or outside the building which create structural
vibrations. The most common sources are foot steps, street traffic,
operating machinery such as lifts, fans, refrigerators, etc.

Remedies
Sound insulation for reduction of Structure borne noise is done in the following
ways:
i. Breaking the continuity by interposing layers of some acoustical insulators
ii. Using double walls, anti-vibration mounts, soft floor finish, etc.
iii. Vibrations produced by the mechanical equipments can be reduced by
insulating the equipments properly
 Inside noises
The noises that are produced inside the same room or in the
adjacent rooms are known as inside noises. Moving people,
movement of furniture, working machines (typewriters,
rotating fans etc.) are the sources for these type of noises.
 
Remedies
Covering the floor with carpets, padding the walls and ceiling
with sound absorbing materials and placing sound
producing machineries on sound absorbent pads reduce
the inside noises.
 ULTRASONICS
• The sound waves that have frequencies above 20,000
Hz or 20 KHz are known as Ultrasonic waves and
Ultrasonics is the branch of Physics that deals with
the propagation and detection of such type of waves.
• They are inaudible to humans (ie. they are unable to
vibrate the inner tympanic membrane in the human
ear) because their wave frequency is very high. Since,
they are sound waves, they require a material
medium to travel and share most of the sound wave
properties.
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves
• They are highly energetic and travel through longer distances
 
• They are reflected, refracted and absorbed like ordinary
sound waves
 
• They set up standing waves in liquids and produce an
acoustical grating

• When US waves are exposed on an object for a long time it

produces heating effect
 Production of Ultrasonic waves
• Magnetostriction oscillator
When a magnetic field is applied parallel to the length of a ferromagnetic
rod made of material such as iron or nickel, a small elongation or
contraction occurs in its length. This phenomenon is known as
magnetostriction.
• The change in length depends on the intensity of the applied magnetic
field and the nature of the ferromagnetic material. It does not depend
on the direction of the field
• When the rod is placed inside a magnetic coil carrying alternating
current, the rod suffers a change in length for each half cycle of
alternating current. And the rod will vibrate producing ultrasonic waves.
 Magnetostriction Oscillator

1 E
The natural frequency of the vibrating rod is given by f 
2l 

A CE Oscillator is a generator of
alternating current. It consists of
an amplifier which feeds back a
small part of its output to its
input. If feedback is positive and
sufficient to compensate for
resistive energy losses, then
undamped oscillations are
obtained.

The figure shows a simple tuned oscillator constructed with a NPN transistor. The L-C circuit is
connected to the collector as the load. Coil L1 is mutually coupled to L2. The rod is clamped at
the middle.
 Magnetostriction Oscillator

When the supply is switched on, the collector current starts rising and oscillations are built
up in the L-C tank circuit. Left as such the oscillations would decay.

In order to maintain sustained

oscillations, the ac signal at L2 is
fed back into the base-emitter
of the circuit (input point)
through mutual inductance coil
L1. The frequency of oscillation
in the L-C tank circuit is given by
1 1
f 
2 LC

By tuning C, the frequency can be adjusted to match with the natural frequency of the rod.
Under this condition, sustained oscillations and hence ultrasonic waves are produced by the
rod. Nickel, alloys of nickel, cobalt and ferrites are widely used magetostrictive materials. A rod
of 0.1m length can produce 20KHz of ultrasonic waves.
 Magnetostriction Oscillator

Advantages of Magnetostrictive
method:
• Ferromagnetic materials are
easily available and
inexpensive
• CE amplifier with Feedback is
easy to construct
• Large output power can be
generated

Disadvantages of
Magnetostrictive method:
• Since the elastic constant
varies with magenetisation, it
is difficult to obtain single
frequency oscillations
• Generation of frequency
beyond 300KHz is not
possible
• Eddy current losses appear
 Peizoelectric Effect
++++++ --------

-------- ++++++

When one pair of opposite faces of certain crystals such as quartz is subjected to
pressure, in the other pair of opposite faces, opposite electric charges are developed.
When the faces are subjected to tension, instead of pressure, the sign of the developed
charges reverses. This effect is known as piezoelectric effect.

Inverse Peizoelectric Effect

If alternating voltage is applied to one pair of faces,
along the direction of the other pair of opposite faces, ~~
the dimension varies. It expands and contracts
periodically generating elastic ultrasonic waves
1 E
The natural frequency of the vibrating crystal is given by f 
2l 

E is the Young’s modulus of the crystal; l is the thickness of the crystal;  is the density
 Quartz Crystal Transducers

Commonly used piezoelectric transducers include crystals of quartz, Rochelle salt, and
ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP). Quartz is most widely used.

The natural quartz crystal has

to be cut in a particular
direction and taken as a slab to
act as piezoelectric transducer.
The type of cut most
commonly used is the X-cut.
Thin plate cut perpendicular to
the x-axis is called x-cut crystal.
This can generate longitudinal
mode of Ultrasonic vibrations
from 5 KHz to several hundred
KHz. If a thin plate is cut
perpendicular to y-axis, then it
is called y-cut crystal.

Y-cut crystal can generate transverse mode of ultrasonic vibrations (thickness mode of
vibrations) from 1 MHz to 10 MHz
 Peizoelectric Oscillator
Construction
A CE Oscillator is a generator of alternating
current. It consists of an amplifier which feeds
back a small part of its output to its input. Coils L,
L1 and L2 are inductively coupled. The L-C tank
circuit generates the output ac signal at the
collector of the NPN transistor. The Quartz crystal
is placed between the metal plates A and B.

Working
When the supply is switched on, the collector
current starts rising and oscillations are built up in
the L-C tank circuit. In order to maintain sustained
oscillations, changes of current in L are fed back
to the Base –Emitter circuit (input point) through
mutual inductance between L and L1.

1 1
The frequency of oscillation in the L-C tank circuit is given by f 
2 LC
 Peizoelectric Oscillator
Working
When the supply is switched on, the collector
current starts rising and oscillations are built up in
the L-C tank circuit. In order to maintain sustained
oscillations, changes of current in L are fed back
to the Base –Emitter circuit (input point) through
mutual inductance between L and L1.
The frequency of oscillation in the L-C tank circuit
is given by 1 1
f 
2 LC
By transformer action, electrodes A and B
connected to coil L2 are induced with alternating
e.m.f. Hence the quartz crystal experiences an
oscillating ac signal. Due to inverse piezoelectric
effect, high frequency ultrasonic waves are
produced. Capacitance C can be
p E
The natural frequency of the vibrating crystal is given by f  tuned to match the
2l  natural frequency to
where p = 1,2,3 ….
obtain resonance
 Peizoelectric Oscillator
Advantages of this method
• Ultrasonic frequencies as high as 500 MHz can
be produced
• Stable single frequency waves can be
generated
• Using different transducers, one can generate
a wide range of frequencies

Output
power

f
Disadvantages
• Piezoelectric crystals are very expensive
• Cutting and shaping are not easy
 Detection of Ultrasonic waves
Thermal Method:
When ultrasonic waves propagate through a medium, alternate compressions and
rarefactions are produced. As a result, at any point in the medium, the temperature
increases during compression and
decreases during rarefaction. If a
platinum wire thermometer is introduced
in the path of such a progressive
ultrasonic wave, resistance of the wire
changes alternatively indicating the
propagation of ultrasonic waves.
Pressure Nodes and Pressure antinodes
are formed in the medium where
standing wave pattern is formed. There
will be localized cooling at the nodes
where air molecules are scarce and
alternate hot zones at the compressed
zones.
However, the compressed air molecules at the pressure antinodes collide with each other
and with the platinum wire and remove the excess heat from the wire maintaining a
constant temperature. Change in temperature leads to change in resistance of the platinum
wire that can be detected using a sensitive Wheatstone Bridge arrangement.
 Detection of Ultrasonic waves

Peizoelectric or Quartz crystal Method:

The quartz crystal which is used for generation of ultrasonic waves can also be used for
detection of ultrasonic waves.

One pair of quartz crystal is subjected to ultrasonic waves. Alternating charges are produced
in the other pair of crystal surfaces. The small ac signal can be amplified and detected.
 Detection of Ultrasonic waves

Kundt’s Tube Method:

A Kundt’s tube can be used to detect the ultrasonic waves of a relatively large wavelength as
done for audible sound waves. First lycopodium powder is sprinkled uniformly in the tube.
When ultrasonic waves are passed through the tube, by adjusting a movable piston,
standing wave pattern is obtained.

The standing wave pattern is indicated by the collection of lycopodium powder in the form
of heaps at the nodal points. The powder is blown off at the antinodal points. The distance
between the two successive nodes or antinodes gives half the wavelength of ultrasonic
waves.
 Detection of Ultrasonic waves

Sensitive Flame Method:

When a narrow sensitive flame is moved in a medium where ultrasonic waves are present,
the flame remains stationary at antinodes and flickers at nodes. Thus the presence of
ultrasonic waves can be detected by observing the flame.

The distance between two successive positions of steady flame (antinodal points) gives half
the wavelength of ultrasonic waves.
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves

• Ultrasonic waves are compressions and rarefactions of air

medium like acoustic waves but with frequencies higher than 20
KHz and hence their wavelengths are small
• Diffraction losses are negligible due to their small wavelength.
The waves can be transmitted over long wavelength without any
appreciable loss of energy.
• They are highly energetic
• They are partially reflected at discontinuities when passed
through a medium. This property is used in NDT.
• They generate heat when absorbed by a medium
• They can drill and cut thin metals.
• Ultrasonic welding is possible at room temperatures
• They mix molten metals of different densities to produce alloys
of uniform composition
 Cavitation
• When ultrasonic waves propagate through a liquid,
alternate compressions and rarefactions are generated at
any point. Rarefaction results in sudden drop in pressure
causing growth and collapse of gas bubbles. This
phenomenon is known as cavitation.
• Due to cavitation, the pressure increases upto thousands
of atmosphere and the temperature at that point rises to
10,000C.
• When numerous gas bubbles collapse, shock waves are
generated that acts like a liquid hammer exhibiting high
crushing power
 Acoustic grating
When ultrasonic waves travelling inside a liquid are reflected,
the reflected waves superpose with the incident waves
producing longitudinal stationary waves. These waves
comprises of alternate compressions and rarefactions at the
nodal and antinodal planes. The density is maximum at the
compressed layer and is minimum at the rarified layer.
The refractive index also varies periodically at the compressed
and rarified layers. This periodic variation in refractive index
acts as a diffraction grating. When monochromatic light is
passed through a diffraction grating, diffraction takes place.
This arrangement is called an acoustic grating.
 Acoustic grating

Peizoelectric crystal is fixed at one side of the wall inside the cell and ultrasonic waves are
generated. The waves travelling from the transducer get reflected from the reflector on the
opposite wall and a standing wave pattern called acoustic grating is formed.

If light from a laser such as He-Ne or diode is allowed to pass through the liquid in a
direction perpendicular to the grating, diffraction takes place. Higher order diffracted images
can be seen on the screen placed at a distance.
 Determination of velocity of ultrasonic waves in a liquid
using Acoustic grating and Ultrasonic interferometer
Theory:
If d is the distance between two nodal or antinodal planes, d will be the grating element.
The diffraction condition can be written as
d Sin  n  n
Where n is the order of diffraction,  is the wavelength of light and n is the angle of
diffraction for the nth diffraction order.
u
If u is the wavelength of the ultrasonic waves, d 
2
u 2n
Sin  n  n or u 
2 Sin  n Ultrasonic interferometer
From  and the measured n , u
can be calculated.
If ‘f’ is the frequency of ultrasonic
waves produced by the oscillator,
and v is the velocity of the waves
in the liquid, then 2 f n
v  f u 
Sin  n
 Applications of Ultrasonic waves

Estimation of Depth of sea

An ultrasonic beam of a narrow pulse produced

by the quartz crystal of then piezoelectric oscillator is
directed towards the sea bed. The wave gets
reflected from the bottom of the sea bed and gets
detected by the crystal itself. The received signal is
amplified and fed to an oscilloscope. The image in
the oscilloscope shows two peaks; one transmitted
and the other received on a time based scale.
The time interval between the pulse of the
transmitted signal and that of the received signal is
noted from the time based scale. Let the time
interval be ‘t’. If the velocity of the ultrasonic waves
in sea water is ‘v’, then 2h vt
v Depth of the sea h 
t 2
 Applications of Ultrasonic waves

• SONAR
SONAR is Sound Navigation
and Ranging
A sharp ultrasonic beam
from the ship is directed to
various directions into the
sea. The reflected signal is
picked up and analysed. By
measuring the time interval
between the transmitted
signal and received signal,
the distance of the object
can be estimated. By
measuring the shift in the
frequency, the velocity of the reflecting body such a submarine can be calculated.
Other Applications of Ultrasonic waves

• Ultrasonic signaling
• Ultrasonic drilling and cutting
• Ultrasonic welding
• Ultrasonic cleaning
• Formation of alloys, creams
• Ultrasonic flaw detector
• Ultrasonic scanning
Thermal expansion

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter

to change its shape, area, volume, and
density in response to a change in
temperature.
Thermal expansion – thermal stress –
bimetals – heat transfer in solids & thermal
conductivity - compound media – Forbe’s
and Lee’s disc method: theory and
experiment.
Thermal expansion

Most Material expand on heating and contract on
cooling

Ex: A completely filled and tightly closed bottle of
water cracks due to thermal expansion of water
molecules

The lid of a tightly closed metal jar can be
opened easily if its dipped in hot water
Expansion loop on heating pipeline
Change in length of a solid material when it is
heated or cooled is equal to the linear
expansion coefficient of that material
multiplied by the original length and the
change in temperature
Areal expansion

 ΔA = β A0 ΔT

Change in area of a solid material when it is heated
or cooled is equal to the areal expansion coefficient
(β) of that material multiplied by the original area
(A0) and the change in temperature (ΔT)
Volume expansion

 ΔV =  V0 ΔT

Change in area of a solid material when it is heated
or cooled is equal to the areal expansion coefficient
(γ) of that material multiplied by the original area
(V0) and the change in temperature (ΔT)
Relation among α, β and γ

For isotropic materials

α: β: γ = 1: 2 : 3
 Points to remember

• Pendulum clocks lose or gain time as the length increases

during summer or decreases during winter respectively
• If a thin rod and a thick rod of same length and material are
heated to same rise in temperature, both expand equally
• If a thin rod and a thick rod of same length and material are
heated by equal quantities of heat, thin rod expands more
than thick rod
• A hole in the metal plate expands on heating just like a solid
plate of the same size. A piston inside a cylinder functions at all
temperatures only because of this
• A cavity of a solid object expands on heating just like a solid
object of the same volume
• The change in the volume of a body, when its temperature is
raised, does not depend on the cavities inside the body
 Points to remember

• Platinum or monal is used to seal inside glass because both

have nearly equal coefficient of linear expansion
• Iron or steel is used for reinforcements in concrete because
both have nearly equal coefficients of expansion (12 x 10 -6 C-1)
• Invar steel has very low . So, it is used in making pendulum
clocks, balancing wheels and measuring tapes (composition
of invar is 64% steel and 36% nickel)
• Pyrex glass has low . Hence combustion tubes and test tubes
for heating purposes are made out of it.
• Metal pipes carrying steam are provided with bends to allow
for expansion.
• To remove a tight metal cap of a glass bottle, it should be
warmed
 Problems

• In a steel rod of cross-section 10-3 m2, a tensile force of 33,000 N is

applied to certain increase in lengths. Calculate the increase in
temperature required to increase the length of the rod by same
amount if the Young’s modulus of the rod is 3 x 1011 Pascals and
coefficient of linear expansion is 1.1 x 10-5 C-1
F
E =
Ae
F l e
Thermal expansion e =  l  =
AE

F 33000
   10C
A E 103  3 1011 1.110 5
 Problems
• A steel meter scale is to be ruled so that millimeter intervals are
accurate within about 5 x 10-5mm at a certain temperature.
Estimate the maximum temperature variation allowable if
coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 10-5 C-1
1  1mm  103 m

2  1  5 105 mm  5  10 8 m

  105 C 1

2  1 (1    )
2  1
 
1
  5 108
  2 1  5  5C
 1 10 103
 Thermal Stress
In many Engineering applications, a metal bar is rigidly
clamped or fixed at its both ends. When the rod expands or
contracts due to change in temperature, large forces are l e
set up within the bar. The stress developed within the
material is called thermal stress.

Consider a bar shown in the Figure. Let ‘l’ be the length of the bar and the coefficient of
thermal expansion of the bar is . Let the Young’s modulus be E. When the
temperature rises by C, the length of the rod increases by ‘e’.

Thermal expansion e =  l 
F EAe E A l
E =
Ae F = 
l l

F = E A 
 Problems
• If we heat a steel bar of cross sectional area 2cm2 with coefficient
of thermal expansion 12 x 10-6mK-1 and Young’s Modulus
2.1 x 1011Pa through 40C, with its ends fixed, Calculate the
resulting force in the bar

F = E A 
F = 2.11011  2 104 12 10 6  40
 2.02  104 N
 Points related to thermal stress
• While laying railway lines, at the joints, gap is
provided to avoid such a large force arising
 Points related to thermal stress
• Expansion joints are provided in long
structures
 Points related to thermal stress
• If tiles are laid in terrace without any gap between
them, buckling of tiles will happen during summer
 Points related to thermal stress
• In integrated circuits (IC), if the co ef. of thermal
expansion and Young’s modulus of the substrate
and the active layer deposited on the substrate are
not matching, micro cracks will be generated
resulting in failure
• Thermal stress is the primary contributor to head
gasket failure in internal combustion engines.
• Incandescent bulb while hot implode when cold
water is splashed on it due to sudden thermal stress
 Points related to thermal stress
• When ice cubes are dropped inside warm water,
we expect the cubes to melt but they crack due to
sudden thermal stress on the outer layer while
interior remains unchanged

• High temperature structural materials with

required elastic and thermal properties are
synthesized for materials used in Space vehicles
 Problems
• If a steel wire of diameter 2mm is stretched between two fixed
points at a temperature of 30C, determine its tension when the
temperature falls to 20C. Given that the coefficient of linear
expansion of steel = 11 x 10-6 C-1 and Young’s modulus of steel is
2.0 x 1011Pa.
F = E A 
F = 2 1011    (1103 ) 2 1110 6  (30  20)
 69.14N
 Bimetallic strips
A bimetallic strip is made from two thin
strips of metals having different
coefficient of linear thermal expansion.
When the difference is more, it becomes
more effective Usually brass ( = 19x10-6
C-1) and steel ( = 12x10-6 C-1) are
selected. The two strips are welded
together.

When the bimetallic strip is heated, the

brass which has larger value of ,
expands more than steel and hence
bends in the form of arc as shown in Fig.
Connection is lost and temperature is
maintained. Thus a bimetallic strip
works as a thermostat.
 Thermal Conductivity
The transfer of heat energy from one place to another through a substance without the
movement of the substance is known as thermal conduction.

Consider a specimen of length dx and

cross-sectional area A with a
temperature difference d between the
opposite faces. The amount of heat
energy flowing through it depends on
A ( d ) t
Q 
(dx)
k A ( d ) t
Q 
(dx)

k is a constant known as thermal conductivity of the material measured in Wm -1K-1. Q/t is the
rate of flow of heat. The thermal conductivity can be defined as the rate of flow of heat
between two surfaces of unit area separated by unit distance when the temperature
difference between them is 1K.
Thermal conductivity of different materials
 Flow of heat in a lagged and unlagged bar
Consider the flow of heat down a bar, assuming that it is perfectly lagged so that no heat
escapes from the sides. All the heat energy entering at one end of the bar leaves the other
end. This is known as parallel heat flow. The drop in temperature is linear. With an
unlagged bar, heat is lost and so the rate of fall of temperature varies down the bar
exponentially.
Mechanism of conduction in solids
1. Metals
– If one end of a metal rod is heated the atoms gain energy and
their vibrations increase. This energy is then passed on to the
other atoms and to the free electrons in the metal. Since the
electrons are very small in size, they can travel rapidly around
the specimen transferring their energy by collision to other
electrons and other atoms.
– In metals, heat is carried mainly by the motion of these free
electrons, although some energy is transferred by interatomic
vibration. The conductivity of metals varies with
temperatures and at very low temperatures, conductivity is
mainly due to lattice vibrations.
Mechanism of conduction in solids
2. Non-metals
– There are very less number of free electrons in
non-metals. Therefore, the only way that heat
can travel through the specimen is by direct
transfer of energy from one atom to another.
Debye suggested that the energy was transferred
by an elastic wave propagated through the
specimen. These waves are called phonons, and
they travel with speed of sound through the
solid.
 Theory of Rectilinear flow of heat
through a rod
Consider a bar of uniform area of cross-section A which is heated at one of its ends so that
heat flows along the length of the bar. Consider two planes A and B perpendicular to the
length of the bar at distances x and x +  x from the hot end.
Let d/dx be the temperature
gradient at A where  is the excess
temperature at A above the
surroundings. Now the excess
temperature at B will be
d
 . x
dx
The temperature gradient at B is
d  d 
    .  x 
dx  dx 

d
At A, Q1   k A
dx
Q1 is the amount of heat entering the layer A per second
 Theory of Rectilinear flow of heat
through a rod
d  d 
Q2   k A    .  x  is the amount of heat leaving the face B at a distance
dx  dx  x +  x from the hot end
The heat gained between the
planes A and B by the rod per sec

Q  Q1  Q2
d d  d 
 k A kA    .  x 
dx dx  dx 
d 2
 k A 2 x
dx

This amount of heat is used to

increase the temperature of the rod
and a part of it is lost due to
radiation. The negative sign
indicates that Q decreases with
increase of x
 Theory of Rectilinear flow of heat
through a rod
Heat used to raise the temperature of the bar

Let the rate of rise of temperature of the bar be d/dt. The heat used per second to raise
the temperature of the bar = mass x specific heat x rate of increase in temperature
d
 ( A x  )  s 
dt
where A is the area of cross-section of the bar; ‘ ’ is the density of the bar; ‘s’ is the
specific heat of the material of the rod

Heat lost due to radiation loss

The heat lost per second due to radiation = E p x  where p is the perimeter, E is the
emissive power of the surface and  is the average excess temperature of the rod between
the planes A and B. Therefore,
d d 2 d
Q  A x  s  E p  x or k A 2  x  A  s  E p  x
dt dx dt
 Theory of Rectilinear flow of heat
through a rod
d 2 d
k A 2 x A  s  E p  x
dx dt
d 2  s d Ep is the equation for rectilinear flow of
or 2
   heat along the bar of uniform area of
dx k dt kA
cross-section

Case (i) Radiation loss is negligible

If the heat lost per second due to radiation = E p x  is negligibly small, the second term
can be omitted
d 2  s d 1 d
2
  where h is known as thermal diffusivity of the rod
dx k dt h dt

Case (ii) After steady state is reached

d d 2 Ep
will be zero and hence the equation reduces to  
dt dx 2
kA
 Theory of Rectilinear flow of heat
through a rod
d 2 Ep d 2
2
  This equation is of the type  2 
dx kA dx 2

The general solution for this differential equation is  = A e + x + B e - x where A

and B are constants that can be determined from the boundary conditions

Case (a) If the bar is of infinite length

When the bar is of infinite length, under steady state we can assume that no heat is lost from
the free end of the bar and the bar is at the temperature of the surroundings.

Let the excess temperature above the surroundings at the hot end be 0 (at x = 0,  = 0) and
at the other end the excess temperature is zero ( at x = ,  = 0 ). Applying these boundary
conditions, we get 0 = A + B and 0 = A e  . As e  cannot be zero, A should be 0. This gives
B = 0. On substituting the values of A and B, we get

 = 0 e - x
 Theory of Rectilinear flow of heat
through a rod
Case (b) If the bar is sufficiently long and is of finite length L

 = A e + x + B e - x
d
The boundary conditions will be  = 0 at x = 0 and  0 at x = L
dx
Substituting the boundary conditions, we get Substituting for B in 0 = A + B, we get
0  A  B  0  A (1  e 2  L )
d 0
 A  e  x  B  e  x A
dx 1  e 2 L
0  A  e  L  B  e  L
0
0  A e 2 L  B B 
1  e 2 L
Therefore,
 ex e  x 
  0  2 L
 2  L 
is the general solution of the
 1  e 1  e  equation for a rod of finite length
 Determination of thermal conductivity of a
good conductor – Forbe’s method
Consider a long metal bar of cross-sectional area A and thermal conductivity k. Let s be the
specific heat capacity and  be the density of the material of the bar. Let one end of the bar
be heated. Under steady state condition, let the sections at different distances x1, x2, x3 etc.
from the hot end be at different temperatures 1, 2, 3 etc.
 Determination of thermal conductivity of a
good conductor – Forbe’s method

A graph drawn between distance from hot end and temperature results in exponential
curve as per the equation  = 0 e -  x

 d 
   tan 
 dx  x1

 d 
   tan 
 dx  x 2
 Determination of thermal conductivity of a
good conductor – Forbe’s method
Heat gained

Consider two sections of the rod A and B at distances x1 and x2 from the hot end of the rod

Quantity of heat flowing across A per second Q  k A  d   k A tan 

1  
 dx  x1
Similarly across section B,
 d 
Q2  k A    k A tan 
 dx  x 2
Heat accumulated per second
within sections A and B is Q1 – Q2

Q1  Q2  k A (tan   tan  )

Since the rod is under steady state condition, the amount of heat accumulated per second
is lost to the surroundings by radiation.
 Determination of thermal conductivity of a
good conductor – Forbe’s method
Heat gained

Consider two sections of the rod A and B at distances x1 and x2 from the hot end of the rod

Quantity of heat flowing across A per second Q  k A  d   k A tan 

1  
 dx  x1
Similarly across section B,
 d 
Q2  k A    k A tan 
 dx  x 2
Heat accumulated per second
within sections A and B is Q1 – Q2

Q1  Q2  k A (tan   tan  )

Since the rod is under steady state condition, the amount of heat accumulated per second
is lost to the surroundings by radiation.
 Determination of thermal conductivity of a
good conductor – Forbe’s method
Heat lost

Consider a small elemental section dx at a temperature C above the surrounding temp.

Heat lost per second due to radiation = Mass x Specific heat capacity x rate of cooling
= ( A dx) x s x (d/dt)
d
x2

Heat lost between x1 and x2 =  As x1 dt dx

Under steady state condition

Rate of heat accumulation = Rate of heat lost x2

 d 
 s   dx
 d
x2
 x1 
dt 
k A (tan   tan  )   A s    dx or k 
x1 
dt  tan   tan 

The thermal conductivity of a good conductor can be determined.

 Experimental Determination – Forbe’s method
(i) Static part of the experiment

Hot end is heated until steady state is reached (ie) the thermometers indicate constant
temperatures. The temperature indicated by various thermometers and their distances
from the hot end are noted. A graph is plotted between the excess temperatures and the
various values of x. Since the temperature remains steady, this part of the experiment is
called static part.

Tangents are drawn at x1 and x2 and

the slope values tan  and tan  are
found
 Experimental Determination – Forbe’s method
(i) Dynamic part of the experiment

An identical bar of small length is heated to a high temperature and then it is suspended in
air as shown in Figure. The bar is allowed to cool by radiation of heat to the surroundings.
The temperature of the bar is noted at regular intervals of time by a sensitive thermometer
placed in a hole containing mercury. A graph is plotted between the excess temperature
and the corresponding time. From the graph, the value of cooling rate d/dt for various
values of  are determined by drawing tangents at various points on the graph.
 Experimental Determination – Forbe’s method
(i) Dynamic part of the experiment

A third graph is plotted between d/dt for various values of x. The area between the graph
and the x-axis between the values x = x1 and x = x2 gives the value of the integral

d
x2

x1 dt dx

The thermal conductivity can be

calculated from the values of tan 
and tan  obtained from the static
part and the value of the integral
obtained from the dynamic part.
 Forbe’s method – Merits and Demerits
Merits

1. Absolute thermal conductivity of the material can be determined

2. No specific law is assumed and all the relevant data are determined
experimentally

Demerits

1. The method requires a lot of time for the completion of experiment and for
drawing the three graphs
2. The specific heat of the material does not remain constant as assumed at
different temperatures
3. The temperature distribution along the bar is different in the static part from
that in the dynamic part of the experiment.
4. The loss of heat in the dynamic part is purely transverse whereas the heat
flows longitudinally in the static part of the experiment
5. Long bars of material have to be used.
 Determination of thermal conductivity of a
good conductor – Lee’s Disc method
The poor conductor specimen has to be prepared in the form of thin specimen with a large
cross-sectional area. Lee’s disc set up has a circular brass disc called baseplate. The thin
specimen of poor conductor having the same cross-sectional area rests on the baseplate
and steam chest is placed on top. Steam is passed through it and the temperature of the
steam chest and base plate are measured.
 Determination of thermal conductivity of a
good conductor – Lee’s Disc method

When the steady state is reached, heat conduction rate by the poor conductor to the
baseplate is equal to the heat lost by the baseplate to the surroundings by radiation
 Determination of thermal conductivity of a
good conductor – Lee’s Disc method
If 1 and 2 are the temperatures of steam chest and the baseplate respectively under the
steady state, t is the thickness of the poor conductor and r is its radius, then the rate of
heat conduction by the poor conductor is
k A (1   2 ) k  r 2 (1   2 )
Q1  
t t
Heat lost per second by the baseplate by radiation during the 1 st part of the expt

Q2  ( r 2  2  r d ) E
where d is the thickness of the baseplate and E is the emissivity of the surface of the
baseplate. When steady state condition is reached, the emissivity is from the bottom of
the baseplate of area  r 2 and side of the baseplate of area 2  r d

Radiation loss rate

Q1  Q2 Emissivity E 
area of the surfaces
k  r 2 (1   2 )
 ( r 2  2  r d ) E M s (d / dt )
t 
2 r 2  2 r d
 Determination of thermal conductivity of a
good conductor – Lee’s Disc method

Substituting for E,
k  r 2 (1   2 ) M s (d / dt )
 ( r  2  r d )
2

t (2  r 2  2  r d )
 d   r  2 d 
 M s   
 dt  2  2 r  2 d 

 d 
M s  (r  2 d ) t
 dt  2
k 
 r 2 (1   2 )(2 r  2 d )

The thermal conductivity of the poor conductor can be determined.

 Experimental Determination - Lee’s Disc method
The mean thickness (t) of the poor conductor like cardboard is determined using a screw
gauge. The diameter of the baseplate (2r) is determined with the Vernier calipers. The
thickness of the baseplate (d) is measured using a screw gauge or Vernier calipers. The
mass of the baseplate is found using a physical balance.
The baseplate is hung from a ring stand with the help of support threads. The cardboard
of the same diameter is placed on it. The steam chest is placed over the cardboard.
(i) First part
Steam is passed through the steam chest and the temperature of the baseplate and the
steam chest are measured to be 1 and 2 respectively when steady state is reached.

(ii) Second part

The rate of loss of heat from the baseplate can be found as follows. The cardboard is
removed and the baseplate is heated directly by the steam chest to a temperature above
10C above the steady state temperature 2. The heated baseplate is hung in air using the
ring stand and the temperature of the baseplate is continuously monitored. When the
temperature reaches 2 + 5C, stop clock is started and the temperature is recorded for
every 30 seconds until it falls down to 2 – 5C. A temperature – time cooling curve is
drawn and the slope of it centered at 2 is (d/dt)2. Substituting the parameters, the
thermal conductivity of the cardboard can be determined.
 Thermal conduction through compound media
Consider a compound slab made of three different materials A, B and C of thicknesses d 1, d2
and d3. Let k1, k2 and k3 be their thermal conductivities respectively. Let the temperatures
of the faces be 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively and heat
flows from A to C. If Q is the quantity of heat flowing
through each material per unit time and A is the
surface area, then
Q k1 A (1   2 ) k2 A ( 2  3 ) k3 A (3   4 )
  
t d1 d2 d3
Q d1
1   2 
t k1 A
Q d2
2 3 
t k2 A
Q d3
3   4 
t k3 A
Adding, we get
Q  d1 d2 d3  Q A  1   4  This is the quantity
1   4    
  t  d1 d2 d3  of heat conducted
At  k1 k2 k3   
  per unit time in
 k1 k2 k3 
compound media
 Thermal Insulation of buildings
• Thermal insulation is maintaining the interior temperature of the
building at any desired value. Due to thermal insulation, the room
remains cool in summer and warm in winter.
• Thermal comfort is maintaining a constant air movement and
removal of saturated air from inside.
• The thermal insulating materials in a building should have high
thermal resistance. They should have a fibrous, granular or a
porous structure. Fibrous and porous materials have air gaps
which prevent the conduction of heat through them since air is a
poor conductor of heat.
• Less dense materials provide superior thermal insulation than
high dense materials.
Properties of thermal insulation materials

• They should have a low thermal conductivity

• They should be stable against environmental
influences
• They should be fire resistive
• Specific heat capacity should be large
• They should be cost effective
 Thermal insulation design

Instead of constructing a thick wall with a thermal insulating material such as brick, an air
cavity in between the wall structure parallel to the two wall surfaces results in
considerable increase in insulation
Thermal insulation in floors and ceilings :

Effective control of floor temperature can be achieved by raising the ground floor
from the earth level. Covering the entire floor with carpets made of good thermal
insulating materials gives better insulation. As far as ceiling is concerned, constructing the
roof at a greater height provides excellent summer cool effect. The interior of the roof may
be covered with wood.

Dark colour finishing of the wall absorbs heat and increases the temperature. Hence,
it is better to finish the wall with light colour. House plan must be prepared in such a way
that the area of walls facing the direction of sun is minimal.

Thermal insulation in windows and doors :

The windows cover nearly 15 – 20% of the total wall area. The value of the building is
estimated based on the number of windows and doors in that building. They allow natural
ventilation. They allow sunlight to enter. Instead of single glazed windows, multiple glazed
windows with air space between glasses provide more thermal resistance. Air in between
the two doors form an insulating layer and it does not allow heat to flow. Selecting suitable
window material is also very important
 Ventilation
• Maximum thermal comfort can be provided by proper ventilation. Ventilation not
only allows fresh air to enter the room but also removes the utilized contaminant
air from inside.

• Since the exhaled air as well as the air gas from combustion stove are warm with
excess of CO2 and light in density, they raise in height. Hence exhaust fans are to be
fixed at a sufficiently raised height. The exhaust systems remove smoke, dust,
odours etc. and provide partial vacuum inside.

• Circulation of fresh air inside the room is maintained by the doors and ventilators.
Ventilation depends on the design of the inlet and outlet openings and their
locations and width.

• Artificial ventilation is provided by air supply systems and air conditioning systems.
Air Conditioner controls the humidity, temperature and movement of the air.
Ventilation has to be planned depending on the direction of seasonal winds at a
place.