ACOUSTICS

A Branch that deals with Generation,

Propagation & Reciprocation of Sound waves
Introduction
What is Sound?

Acoustics is classically divided into Sound & Vibration.

FACTORS AFFECTING
ACCOUSTICS OF A
BUILDING
 REVERBERATION

The persistence or prolongation of Sound even though the source is cut

off.
REVERBERATION TIME
• If a hall is to be acoustically satisfactory , it is essential that it should have the right reverberation time.
• The reverberation time should be neither too long nor too short .
• A very short reverberation time makes a room ‘dead’ . On the other hand , a long reverberation
time renders speech unintelligible.
• The optimum value for reverberation time depends on the purpose for which a hall is designed.

REMEDIES
• The reverberation time can be controlled by the suitable choice of building materials and
furnishing materials.
• Since open windows allow the sound energy to flow out of the hall , there should be a limited number
of windows . They may be opened or closed to obtain optimum reverberation time.
• Cardboard sheets, perforated sheets, felt , heavy curtains , thick carpets, etc. are used to increase wall
and floor surface absorption . Therefore, the walls are to be provided with absorptive materials to the
required extent and at suitable places.
• Heavy fold curtains may be used to increase the absorption.
• Covering the floor with carpet also increase the absorption.
• Audience also contribute to absorption of sound . The absorption coefficient of an individual is about
0.45 sabines.
• In order to compensate for an increase in the reverberation time due to an unexpected decrease
in audience strength , upholstered seats are to be provided in the hall.
• Absorption due to an upholstered chair is equivalent to that of an individual.
REVERBERATION TIME
FACTORS AFFECTING ACOUSTICS OF A
BUILDING
• FOCUSSING

• Reflecting concave surfaces cause concentration of reflected sound , creating a sound of larger
intensity at
the focal point . These spots are known as sound foci.
• Such concentrations of sound intensity at some points lead to deficiency of reflected sound at
other points.
• The spots of sound deficiency are known as dead spots . The sound intensity will be low at dead
spots and inadequate hearing.
• Further , if they are highly reflecting parallel surfaces in the hall , the reflected and direct
sound waves may form standing waves which leads to uneven distribution of sound in the
hall.

REMEDIES
• The sound foci and dead spots may be eliminated if curvilinear interiors are avoided . I f such
surfaces are present , they should be covered by highly absorptive materials.
• Suitable sound diffusers are to be installed in the hall to cause even distribution of sound in the
hall.
• A paraboloidal reflecting surface arranged with the speaker at its focus is helpful in directing a
uniform reflected beam of sound in the hall.
FACTORS AFFECTING ACOUSTICS OF A
BUILDING
• ECHOES
• When the walls of the hall are parallel , hard and separated by about 34m distance , echoes are
formed.
• Curved smooth surfaces of walls also produce echoes.

REMEDIES
• This defect is avoided by selecting proper shape for the auditorium.
• Use of splayed side walls instead of parallel walls greatly reduces the problem and enhance the
acoustical quality of the hall
• Echoes may be avoided by covering the opposite walls and high ceiling with absorptive material.
FACTORS AFFECTING ACOUSTICS OF A
BUILDING
• ECHELON EFFECT
• If a hall has a flight of steps , with equal width, the sound waves reflected from them will consist
of echoes with regular phase difference .
• These echoes combine to produce a musical note which will be heard along with the direct sound
. This is called echelon effect.
• It makes the original sound unintelligible or confusing.

• REMEDIES
• It may be remedied by having steps of unequal width.
• The steps may be covered with proper sound absorbing materials , for example with a carpet.
FACTORS AFFECTING ACOUSTICS OF A
BUILDING
• RESONANCE
• Sound waves are capable of setting physical vibration in surrounding objects , such as
window panes , walls , enclosed air , etc.
• The vibrating objects in turn produce sound waves .
• The frequency of the forced vibration may match some frequency of the sound produced and
hence result in resonance phenomenon.
• Due to the resonance certain tones of the original music may get reinforced that may result in
distortion of the original sound.

• REMEDIES
• The vibrations of bodies
may be suitably damped
to eliminate resonance
due to them by proper
maintenance and
selection .
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
CHARACTERISTICS
 INTIMAC
Y to the feeling that listeners
“Intimacy” refers
have of being physically close to the
performing group. Intimacy is achieved
whenever the first reflected sound reaches
TEXTUR the listener less than about 20 ms after the
E direct sound.
BLEND AND
ENSEMBLE
Acoustical Design
Steps
• An acoustical consultant should take the following steps in designing a room for speech
communication:

Assess the acoustical requirements.

• Will the room be configured in a lecture style with a fixed speaker location or will it be a more
interactive type of use as in many meeting rooms and classrooms? Will users of the room
regularly include those with special acoustical needs such as very young, very old or hearing-
impaired listeners who would require superior listening conditions? (Listeners with more severe
hearing impairment may require the installation of systems that transmit speech to personal
receiving devices.)
Choose a maximum noise level goal.
• Determine the maximum ambient noise level criterion from Figure 2 and modify it to meet the
needs of particular users.
Design to meet noise criteria.
• Set the maximum noise level criteria for mechanical systems. Room boundaries must be
adequate barriers
to intruding noise from outdoors and from adjacent spaces.
Choose the reverberation time criterion.
• Select the RT design goal from Figure 3 and use the lower (special needs) curve if more critical
uses are expected.
Determine the required total sound absorption and amount of material to be
added.
• Figure 4 gives a simple estimate of the total required sound absorption. Calculating the amount
of added sound-absorbing material requires knowledge of the sound absorption of various
products and an estimate of the absorption of the expected room occupants.
Consider the room shape and the location of the sound-absorbing material.
• In smaller rooms, sound-absorbing material should usually be distributed evenly over the room
surfaces but avoiding the centre portion of the ceiling and surfaces close to talker locations such
as fixed podiums. In larger rooms the shape of the room and the location of absorption will also
be important.
ACOUSTICS FOR DIFFERENT
TYPES OF
BUILDINGS
 Lecture
Halls
Acoustic considerations
• Speech intelligibility and rhetoric must be in focus in lecture halls.
• Ideal acoustic conditions are ensured by creating a sonorous room – a rich sound environment
with a hint
of resonance.
• Furthermore, good sound diffusion is necessary in order to spread the consonants to the
audience.
Acoustic design
• Recommended reverberation time is 1 second.
• the NC level should not exceed 25 to 30.
• The front wall and ceilings can be reflective, enabling sound to reach everyone.
• Absorptive material on the back and side walls will help reduce the reverberation time and
unwanted reflections.
• If possible, try to avoid parallel surfaces, which can cause flutter echoes.
• Consider splaying or canting the sidewalls.
• Lecture halls must be fitted with sound reflecting elements above the speaker.
• In addition, it is important to enable the sound to be angled so that it can reach the
audience.
• The ceiling can be created as a separate shape that prevents the sound from being reflected
back to the speaker.
• Walls should have a Sound Transmission Coefficient (STC) rating of not less than 50.
• Walls must extend to the floor above or to the roof construction, and not stop at the ceiling.
• The mix of sound-reflectant and sound-absorbent materials must be carefully calculated
to control reverberation without creating a sound-deadened room .
• Ceilings should be sloped or stepped and primarily of a hard surface.
• Acoustical treatment for the ceiling, if required, should be installed around the perimeter of the
sides and rear in the form of a ‘U’ with the front and middle sections of hard surfaced , sound
reflectant materials.
• Acoustical treatment normally will not exceed 40-50% of the ceiling surface.
• Partial wall-surface treatments should be considered as an alternative to ceiling treatment.
• The back wall may need to be 50-100% covered with acoustical absorption materials.
• Care must be exercised in isolating the facility from exterior noise as well as controlling the
background noise level in the room, especially that generated by the mechanical systems.
• Ambient sound levels measured at 4 feet above the floor at all points throughout the room
must have a Noise Criterion (NC) rating of more than 35.
• The mechanical system should generate a background noise of not more than NC 15-20.
• Factors that have been identified in the design of a quiet operating system include :
 Air handlers or fans located away from the lecture hall
 Low velocity of air within the lecture hall
 Proper sizing and acoustical treatment of ducts ,
returns and diffusers.
• For lecture halls noise limits of 35 dB(A) or 30
• dB(A) are recommended.
Requiremen Maximum Noise
ts low Level
middle high 40 dB(A)
35 dB(A)
• Maximum allowable background 30 noise
dB(A)
levels
 CLASSROO
AcousticMS
considerations
• in a class room, it is important to ensure good speech and listening comfort.
• the most important aspect in achieving listening comfort is the audibility and clarity of
consonants.
 • rectangular room, 50 to 70 m². ceiling height max.
this is due to the fact that comprehension of speech is dependent on consonants.
• in addition, interfering noise must be reduced so that it does not drown or ”mask” the
3 m.
•
relevant sound.
speech comfort is ensured by creating a sense of reverb in order for the rhetoric effects to be
 • room dimension may not be close to or exceed 1:2.
used.
if too much sound is absorbed, the rhetoric effects of the speech will disappear.
• if too little sound is absorbed, the noise will impede the listening comfort.
• Ceiling:
Acoustic design
 Acoustic materials with sound absorbing and
diffusing properties,%ofasacoustical
well as a small amount of
reflection. tile 40-50
50-60
 The area of the ceiling to be acoustical tile is a
function of ceiling height.
 ceiling height
• Walls:
 Sound absorbing materials with diffusion characteristics.
 Sound Transmission Coefficient (STC) not less than 50.
 Walls must extend to the floor above or to the roof construction, and not stop at the ceiling. This will
reduce noise transmission.
 Higher STC ratings and special wall construction details must be included whenever classrooms are
located to
,adjacent, or below restrooms, mechanical rooms, elevator shafts, athletic facilities , or other sources of
high noise
levels or where the classroom function generates a significant amount of noise.
 Concrete masonry units may be used, but may have to be covered with another finish in order to provide
proper acoustical treatment.
 Folded walls are extremely undesirable and should not be used except under very extraordinary
circumstances. It is difficult to develop a folding-wall design that is able to maintain adequate sound
separation between classrooms.
 Sound levels as generated by mechanical systems or other ambient noise measured at all points in a
classroom at 4 feet above the floor must have a Noise Criterion (NC) rating of not more than 35.

• Mechanical systems:
 The mechanical systems supporting general purpose classrooms should generate a background noise of
not more than NC 35.
 The air changes and circulation of air per ASHRA standards is a critical factor instructional spaces . This
must be achieved with effective control of HVAC system-generated background noise.

• Utility Boxes:
 When classrooms share a common wall, electrical
receptacles or other utility boxes should not be
installed back-to-back with similar receptacles in the
next room.
 Off setting the boxes will reduce sound transmission
 OPEN
OFFICES
Acoustic
•considerations
Open plan offices are best suitable for employees with related work functions and
the
occupations requiring visual and verbal contact.
• The most important acoustic measure is sound separation.
• The interior fit-out plays therefore an important acoustic role.
• In addition, personal relations have a decisive influence of the perception of sound
versus noise.
• It is thus in some cases required to plan the fit-out on a more individual level.
Acoustic
design
• It is important to create discontinuous ceiling and wall surfaces, both as structures, inclinations or
curves.
• Hard surfaced elements that reflect sound should be avoided or equipped with sound absorbers.
• Alternatively, the groups should be separated by room dividing elements, stretching from the
ceiling to the floor.
• BLOCK SOUND
• To stop the direct path of sound, we erect barriers (system wall panels) which stop sound from
passing through. The STC, or Sound Transmission Class, of a partition measures the ability of
a barrier to stop sound from passing through it. A material of an STC of 21 will prevent 21
decibels from passing through.
• The most sound reduction that can be expected between workstations is 21 decibels, because
sound will diffract, that is, bend over the top and around the side of partial height partitions. An
STC of more than 21 is not generally an advantage.
• ABSORBING SOUND
• Acoustically absorbent panels absorb rather than reflect sound. The reflection of sound off hard
surfaces is called reverberation. The absorption of sound, on the other hand, actually refers to
energy conversion.
• Sound is created when something resonates i.e. pushes against the air and retracts creating
waves of dense and rarefied air – fluctuations in air pressure.
• Sound is a form of energy, and energy cannot be destroyed. It can be dissipated as it spreads out
over distance or converted into another form of energy. Acoustical panels convert sound energy
into mechanical energy. As sound waves impact the material, the material responds by vibrating.
Those vibrations (“wiggles’) are then dissipated as a minute amount of heat. The ability of a
material to convert sound energy to mechanical energy is measured in a test that provides the
Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC). An NRC of 70 means that a material absorbs 70 percent of
the sound that hits it. The reciprocal, 30 percent, is returned.
• The ability of a material to absorb sound determines its acoustical capabilities. The most effective
sound reduction in a office environment is achieved when the higher frequencies of human
speech, those that lend intelligibility, are those which are absorbed. These are often referred to as
the articulate speech frequencies.
• The NRC is a simple average of the material’s absorption of sound at frequencies of 250, 500,
1,000 and 2,000 Hertz (Hz). Hertz cycles per second (CPS), and frequency all refer to the
number of fluctuations per second which determines the pitch of a sound.
• In evaluating an NRC rating for open plan acoustics, it is important that the higher absorption
coefficients are at the higher frequencies (the articulate frequencies of human speech).
• Two different materials may have the same NRC but, the one which absorbs more of the
intelligible (higher) speech frequencies is a more effective material for controlling sound in an
office environment. In fact, the reflection of low frequencies may be an advantage in that it
permits an ambient sound level that can reinforce the background masking sound.
 CONCERT
•
HALLS
The reverberation time will depend on what type of concert is performed.
• For classical or orchestral music, a higher reverberation time would be
appropriate (approximately 2 sec), for a rock concert, a lower
reverberation time would be appropriate (approximately 1 sec). Find a
happy medium, perhaps 1.5 sec. This only applies to indoor venues.
• It is vital to control the reflections from the back wall. If not, the
presentation could reflect off the back wall and "slap back" to the
presenter(s). This won't necessarily impact the audience, but could be
disastrous and distracting for the people on stage. Because of this, it's
usually necessary to splay or tilt the back wall to avoid slap back. A
concave back wall could compound this problem. If not, it's imperative
that it be treated with absorptive material.
• Control the reverberation time on the stage. Ideally, the reverberation
time in the stage area should be the same as in the house. Since the
stage area might have a higher ceiling than the rest of the auditorium,
more absorptive materials might be required in this area. Frequently, the
back wall of the stage, and possibly one or two of the side walls, is
treated with an acoustically absorptive material, typically black in color.
• Beware of potential noise impact to your space from exterior sources
and/or excessive HVAC noise. In the design, the NC level should not
exceed 25 to 35. When specifying NC, specify an actual rating, such as
NC 30, rather than a range, such as NC 30-35. Although specifying a
lower number will ensure minimal background noise, it might be cost
prohibitive to achieve.
Concert halls
CINEMA
HALL
• Recommended reverberation time: 0.8-1.2 seconds.
• Background noise levels should be kept to a minimum. Three primary
potential noise sources are mechanical equipment (HVAC), noise from
adjacent theaters and lobby, and outdoor noise.
• HVAC noise, which is often overlooked, can negatively impact the
usability of a space. To help protect your design, the NC level should not
exceed 30 to 35. When specifying NC, specify an actual rating, such as
NC 30, rather than a range, such as NC 30-35. Although specifying a
lower number will ensure minimal background noise, it might be cost
prohibitive to achieve
• Noise from the lobby area can be disruptive. Be sure openings such as
doorways
are properly sealed. Consider a vestibule door system.
• Excessive room length should be avoided.
• Beware of potential outdoor noise impacting your space.
• A common, and often ineffective, practice is to use absorptive
materials only on the back wall of a cinema. This is meant to reduce
slap back; but slap back impacts the performers, which, in this case,
are actors on a movie screen. Primary concern should be given to the
audience. Although absorption on the back wall might be necessary,
the critical areas are the side walls. Walls, except possibly those
closest to the screen, should be absorptive.
• It is vital to control the noise transfer between theaters. The STC
rating should be at least 60-65, but keep in mind that STC ratings
only address noise isolation from 125 Hz to 4000 Hz. This range is
fine when considering speech frequencies, but gives no information
for sounds that register at lower frequencies, such as the base notes
of the music or explosion sound effects, which often register below
125 Hz. In such cases, be aware that the STC rating might not
accurately describe how well that particular wall will work at that
noise level.
AUDITORIU
MS
• Recommended reverberation time is 1.0-1.5 seconds (might be higher for
some auditoriums).
• Although the seating area will provide absorption, thereby reducing the
reverberation time, absorptive materials are to be added to the other surfaces
within the space.
• It is vital to control the reflections from the back wall. If not, the presentation
could reflect off the back wall and "slap back" to the presenter(s). This won't
necessarily impact the audience, but could be disastrous and distracting for
the people on stage. Because of this, it's usually necessary to treat the back
wall with an absorptive material. A concave back wall could compound this
problem. If not, it's imperative that it be treated with absorptive material.
• Splay or use irregular surfaces on the walls to avoid flutter echoes. Parallel
reflective surfaces can allow sound to "ricochet" back and forth between the
surfaces. This potentially annoying condition is referred to as standing wave or
flutter echo. It is avoided by constructing non-parallel surfaces or by adding
absorptive materials to the surface(s).
• Consider faceting the ceiling to help with sound dispersion.
• Control the reverberation time on the stage. Ideally, the reverberation time in the
stage area should be the same as in the house. Since the stage area might have a
higher ceiling than the rest of the auditorium, more absorptive materials might be
required in this area. Frequently, the back wall of the stage, and possibly one or
two of the side walls, is treated with an acoustically absorptive material, typically
black in color.
• Remember the space will be less absorptive when only half full, since the audience
itself is absorptive. By using absorptive seating areas, the reverberation time will
remain more consistent regardless of the audience size.
• Noise from the lobby area can be disruptive. Be sure openings such as
doorways are properly sealed. Consider a vestibule door system.
• Persons seated deep under a balcony might experience auditory distortion. To avoid
this, the balcony should be no deeper than twice its height. Ideally, the balcony
should not be any deeper than its height.

• Even if everything else is controlled perfectly, the space might not be usable if the
background noise (e.g. HVAC system) is too loud. For good design, the NC level
should not exceed 20 to 35. When specifying NC, specify an actual rating, such as
NC 20, rather than a range, such as NC 20-30. Although specifying a lower number
will ensure minimal background noise, it might be cost prohibitive to achieve.
SEMINAR
ROOMS
For Acoustic Treatment in conference halls and Seminar halls three basic steps kept in mind.
• 1. Sound isolation to avoid noise disturbance and to achieve good speech privacy.
• 2. Room finishes to create an acoustical environment conducive to discussion over the length of
long
boardroom tables.
• 3. HVAC system noise control to reduce background noise and further provide for discussions
over those long tables.
A conference room is designed for two acoustic purposes:
•Confine sound within the walls so people on the outside cannot hear what is said
inside.
•Create a good environment for conversations, both those made within and
those made through a speakerphone or similar.
• This means that the walls are thick and rigid – not letting much sound through and thus the
sound is trapped inside in the form of echoes or reverberations.
• These echoes pollute the acoustic environment on the inside and must therefore be
eliminated – something which is best done by sound absorption.
• Since the conversation that created these echoes consists of both high and low frequencies
then the echoes also consists of both high and low frequencies.
• Because of this both high and low frequencies alike need to be removed, or absorbed, and
preferably
equally much of each.
• Aim for having at least 15% of the wall surface covered with panels for the best result (if there are
no other acoustic improvements).
• The best way is to either have them on all walls or on two walls out of four - this way there is no