Outline

 Bloom’s Taxonomy
(Analyze, Evaluate, Create)
 Communication Competence
This is a challenge for undergraduates as higher order thinking
skills need to be employed in their assignments. Nevertheless, the
conceptual framework and sample activities proposed by Waters
(2006) provides a practical guide based on the revised taxonomy of
Bloom’s cognitive thinking skills in the teaching and learning
approach.

The levels of thinking beginning from lowest to highest are

knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation (Bloom's Taxonomy) were ordered from simple to
complex and from concrete to abstract.
 Thinking, also known as
'cognition', refers to the ability to
THINKING process information, hold
attention, store and retrieve
memories and select appropriate
responses and actions.

The ability to understand other

people, and express oneself to
others can also be categorized
under thinking.
relation to Language Teaching,

1980
The applied linguists Canale
and Swain published an
influential article in which they
argued that the ability to
communicate required four
different sub-competencies:
 Strategic Competence

Discourse Competence

Sociolinguistic Competence

Grammatical Competence

1. Grammatical Competence
2. Sociolinguistic Competence
In your opinion, which of the four
competencies as defined by
Canale and Swain receive the
most attention in foreign language
education? Why?

3. Discourse Competence Think about your own

4. Strategic Competence communicative competence in a
second or third language.

Are you equally strong in all

Source: Canale, M. and Swain, M. 1980. Theoretical bases of
communicative approaches to second language teaching and four competencies?
testing. Applied Linguistics 1 (1), 1-47.
Grammatical Competence
(Words and Rules)
What words do I use?
How do I put them in phrases and sentences?
 Discourse Competence
(Cohesion and Coherence)
How words, phrases and sentences put together to
create conversation, speeches, email messages,
newspapers and articles?
 Sociolinguistic Competence
(appropriateness)
Which words and phrases fit in this setting and this topic? How can I
express to a specific attitude (courtesy, authority, friendliness,
respect)
When I need to?
How do I know what attitude another person is expressing?
 Strategic Competence
(appropriate use of communication strategies)
How can I express my ideas if I don’t know the name of something
or the right verb form to use?
A more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it
into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both
grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence,"
which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence.[6] Strategic
Competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in using communication
strategies (Faerch & Kasper, 1983; Lin, 2009).

Illocutionary
: relating to or being the communicative effect (such as commanding or requesting) of an
utterance"There's a snake under you" may have the illocutionary force of a warning

interlocutors
: a person who takes part in a dialogue or conversation.
To sum up the idea of Canale and Swain in relation to levels of Thinking in Language
Learning,

Grammatical competence differs from sociolinguistic, discourse,

and strategic competencies because it does not presuppose
interaction.!!??

Canale and Swain defined communicative competence as a global competence

that subsumed four separate but related competencies: grammatical,
sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. The concept of communication
competence emerged as a reaction to earlier approaches to language that
focused exclusively on grammatical competence.
 Levelt's Psycholinguistic Model
One of the most influential psycholinguistic models of oral production
comes from Levelt (1989). This model breaks speech production into four
separate cognitive processes:

1. conceptualization;
2. utterance formulation;
3. speech articulation and
4. self-monitoring.
 Levelt's Psycholinguistic Model
1. conceptualization;
2. utterance formulation;
3. speech articulation and
4. self-monitoring.
Speaking as a communicative activity requires all four processes. However, much
oral practice in the classroom merely requires the repetition of prefabricated phrases
that does not entail the first two cognitive processes.

Levelt's (1989) psycholinguistic model focuses on speech production, that is, the
cognitive steps required to produce a spoken utterance, from intention to
articulation.
 LEVELT’S PSYCHOLINGUISTIC MODEL
Cognitive Processes Description
The first component in Levelt’s (1989, 1993) production system is the conceptualizer. This component is
responsible for generating the communicative intentions and for encoding it into some kind of coherent
conceptual plan. In addition, the conceptualizer monitors what is about to be said as well as what has been
Message said and how. In order to generate a message, declarative knowledge is accessed. Declarative knowledge
Conceptualization includes encyclopedic knowledge (about the person’s general experience of the world), knowledge about the
situation (e.g. the interlocutor/s and the communicative context, among others), as well as information about
the discourse record, that is, what has already been said .
In the next component in the production system, the formulator, the propositionally organized preverbal plan
activates the items in the lexicon that best correspond to the different chunks of the intended message that will,
in turn, be responsible for transforming it into a linguistic structure.
Message or Utterance
Formulation In Levelt’s model, as well as in several other models (e.g. Garrett, 1975, 2000; Kempen & Huijbers, 1983),
grammatical and phonological encoding are lexically driven. For grammatical encoding to take place, both
lexical access procedures and syntactic procedures are applied. In the lexicon, each lexical item is specified for
semantic and syntactic information (lemmas), and morphological and phonological information (lexemes).
The articulator is the next component in the speech production system. Articulation is the motor execution of
the phonetic plan, and it involves the respiratory, the laryngeal, and the supralaryngeal systems. Briefly put, as
the
Speech Articulation phonetic plan is being generated, its bits are temporarily stored in an ‘articulatory buffer’. This buffered
information will trigger the ‘unpacking’ of motor commands which will finally cause articulation of the message.
It is this buffered speech which speakers subjectively experience as internal speech. The outcome of
articulation is overt speech.
 LEVELT’S PSYCHOLINGUISTIC MODEL
Cognitive Processes Description
As previously stated, the conceptualizer is in charge of both generating messages and monitoring the whole
process of production. In Levelt’s account, 34 speakers make use of their speech comprehension system to
listen to and process their own speech in exactly the same way they listen to and process the speech of others
The difference is that speakers have access to both their internal and their overt speech. In the case of internal
speech, at an early stage the preverbal plan can be checked against the speaker’s intention.
Self-Monitoring
Later on the process, the articulatory plan is representable in working memory where it can be checked. In this
(Audition, speech
way the speaker can detect problems before he or she has articulated an incorrect item. As for overt speech,
comprehension, and the audition component of the system recognizes the articulated words, and the speech comprehension system
monitoring) will retrieve their meaning.

Hence, learners monitor both the meaning and the well-formedness of their productions. When a problem is
detected, several options are available, such as simply ignoring the problem, revising the preverbal message,
or generating a new message. As will be detailed further in Section 1.4.3, this will depend on the nature of the
problem as well as on other contextual factors.