Unit 3 Miscellaneous Treatment and House Plumbing

Unit 3
Miscellaneous treatment and house plumbing

Oxidation ponds
Oxidation pond
Definition
 Biological treatment systems in which stabilization of organic material is
carried out by bacterial oxidation and /or photosynthetic reduction of algae
 Also known as stabilization ponds
Sun
O2 CO2
Photosynthesis
Microbial action Algal action

Oxidation pond
Use
 Used for the treatment of sewage and biodegradable industrial waste
 designed and built for wastewater treatment to reduce the organic content and remove
pathogens from wastewater.
 Wastewater spends several days in the pond, during which treatment processes take place.
 Waste stabilization ponds are used worldwide for wastewater treatment and are especially
suitable for developing countries that have warm climates.
Oxidation pond
types
 Aerobic ponds
 Anaerobic ponds
 Facultative ponds
 Maturation ponds
Oxidation pond
Aerobic ponds
 Shallow ponds in which light penetrates to the bottom there by maintaining
active algal photosynthesis throughout the system.
Sun
O2
 Variation of “DO” and “pH” can affect the efficiency of the ponds.
Oxidation pond
Anaerobic ponds
 Deep ponds in which light cannot penetrate to the bottom and no oxygen is
available to the microorganisms present at deeper part of the pond.
Sun
O2
Anaerobic zone Release methane

as byproduct
Oxidation pond
Facultative ponds
 Neither fully aerobic nor fully anaerobic
 Aerobic during day time and anaerobic during night time
Sun
O2
 Depth is 1 to 2 m
Oxidation pond
Maturation ponds
 Similar to aerobic ponds in structure.
Sun
O2
 Loaded with lesser organic concentrations and mostly used for polishing
purpose.
Oxidation pond
Design
 The efficiency depends upon temperature and available sunlight
 Surface area is kept as large as possible
 Depth is kept between 50 to 120 cm for aerobic ponds
 Detention period of 10 to 35 days is provided

Oxidation pond
Problem
The population of an industrial estate is 2500 and sewage flow is 125 LPCD. The 5
day BOD of sewage is 350 mg/L. Design an oxidation pond for the treatment of
such sewage. Assume BOD loading of 200 kg/day/ha. Provide 1 m depth to the
pond.
Oxidation pond
Solution
Quantity of sewage = 2500 × 125 L/day
Quantity of BOD in sewage = 2500 × 125 × 350 mg/day
BOD loading = 200 kg/day/ha = 200 × 106 mg/day/ha
Quantity of BOD 2500 ×125 ×350

Surface area= = =0.55 ha
BOD loading 200 ×10 6
Oxidation pond
Solution
Capacity of the tank = surface area × depth = 0.55 ha × 1m = 0.55 × 104 m2 ×1 m
Capacity of the tank = 5500 m3
Detention period = (Capacity of the tank)/(inflow of sewage)
5500 ×10 3 L
Detention period= =18 day
2500× 125 L/ day
Adsorption
Adsorption
 Adsorption is the process of accumulating substances that are in solution on a suitable
interface.
Adsorbent
Adsorbate
 Adsorption is a mass transfer operation in that a constituent in the liquid phase is
transferred to the solid phase.
Adsorption
 The principal types of adsorbents include activated carbon, activated alumina and silica.
Activated carbon is mostly used in case of wastewater treatment.
Activated carbon Activated alumina Silica
 Adsorbents are highly porous and possess extremely high surface area
Adsorption mechanism
• Bulk solution transport
• Film diffusion transport
• Pore transport
• Adsorption
 Bulk solution transport - It involves the movement of organic material to be adsorbed
through the bulk liquid to the boundary layer fixed film of liquid surrounding the adsorbent.
Adsorbent Bulk liquid

Interface
 Film diffusion transport - It involves the transport by diffusion of organic material
through the stagnant liquid film to the entrance of the pores of the adsorbent.
 Pore transport - It involves the transport of the material to be adsorbed through the pores
by a combination of molecular diffusion through the pore liquid along the surface of the
adsorbent.
 Adsorption - It involves the attachment of the material to be adsorbed to adsorbent at an
available adsorption site.
Adsorption mathematical models
 Adsorption kinetics models
 Adsorption isotherm models

Adsorption Kinetics models
 Kinetics: Variation of concentration with time
Adsorbent
Sample 1, Time 1
Sample 2, Time 2
Sample 3, Time 3
Adsorption kinetics
Concentration

.V
Equilibrium time qt = uptake (mg/g)

C0 = Initial concentration (mg/L)
Ct = Final concentration (mg/L)
V = Volume of wastewater (L)
Time m = Mass of adsorbent (g)
Adsorption kinetics models
 Pseudo first order model
 Pseudo second order model
Model Nonlinear form Linearized form
Pseudo first order
Pseudo second order
k1 and k2 = Kinetics order constant qe = Equilibrium uptake

 Pseudo first order model
X-Axis
Y-Axis
 Pseudo Second order model

X-Axis
Y-Axis
Adsorption kinetics model
Problem 1
In an adsorption kinetics experiment, the kinetics data followed pseudo first order
model. The linear equation developed was y = -0.199x + 3.444. Find the values of
k1 and qe from the obtained equation.

Solution:
log qe = 3.444
qe = 2780 mg/g
m = -k1/2.303 -0.199 = -k1/2.303
k1 = 0.46
Adsorption kinetics model
Problem 2
In an adsorption kinetics experiment, the kinetics data followed pseudo second
order model. The linear equation developed was y = 0.0003x + 0.0017. Find the
values of k1 and qe from the obtained equation.

Solution:
m = 1/qe = 0.0003 1/k2qe2 = 0.0017
qe = 3333 mg/g
1/k2.33332 = 0.0017
k2 = 0.00005
Adsorption Isotherm
Measurement of equilibrium concentration

Adsorption isotherm models
Langmuir Isotherm Freundlich isotherm
 Langmuir model
Nonlinear
 Freundlich model
Linear
b = Energy constant for adsorption Ce = Concentration at equilibrium time

(mg/L)
Ce = Concentration at equilibrium time
(mg/L) Kf = Freundlich capacity factor (mg/g)
qe = Uptake at equilibrium time (mg/g) n = Freundlich intensity factor
Qm = Maximum monolayer capacity qe = Uptake at equilibrium time (mg/g)

(mg/g)
Adsorption isotherm models
 Langmuir model
X-Axis
Y-Axis
 Freundlich model
X-Axis
Y-Axis
Adsorption isotherm model
Problem 1
In an adsorption isotherm experiment, the isotherm data followed Langmuir model.
The linear equation developed was y = 0.0042x + 0.0006. Find the values of Qm
and b from the obtained equation.

Solution: 1
=0.0042
bQ m
1

=0.0006 1
Qm
=0.0042
b.1667
1667 mg/g b
Adsorption isotherm model
Problem 2
In an adsorption isotherm experiment, the isotherm data followed Freundlich
model. The linear equation developed was y = 0.1612x + 2.4455. Find the values
of n and Kf from the obtained equation.

Solution:
1
=0.1612 Log Kf
n
Kf
n
Oxidation ditch
Oxidation ditch
Definition
 Oval shaped channel equipped with mechanical aeration and mixing devices
Inlet
Flow
Flow
Sludge trap
Outlet
Oxidation ditch
Function
 Oval shaped channel equipped with mechanical aeration and mixing devices
 Used to remove organic matter and pollutants from sewage through the
processes of adsorption, oxidation and decomposition.
 It uses long solids retention time (SRT) for the effective oxidation of organics
Oxidation ditch
Design considerations
 Velocity of wastewater is 0.33 to 0.66 m/sec
 HRT of 16 to 24 h
 SRT of 20 to 30 days
Oxidation ditch
Design
YQ ( S 0 − S)
V=
X kd
V = Volume (m3)
Y = Yield constant (0.2 to 0.6)
Q = Inflow of wastewater (m3/day)
X = Biomass concentration (kg/m3)
kd = Degradation constant (day-1)
S0 = Influent BOD (g/m3)
S = Effluent BOD (g/m3)
Oxidation ditch
Problem
Determine the volume of an oxidation ditch to treat 30000 m3/day of wastewater.
Influent BOD of the wastewater is 300 mg/L. The effluent BOD concentration is
expected to be 5 mg/L. Biomass concentration is 4 kg/m3, yield constant id 0.4 and
degradation constant is 0.03 day-1.

Oxidation ditch YQ ( S 0 − S)
V=
Solution X kd
Given: 0.4 × 30000 𝑚 3 / 𝑑𝑎𝑦 × ( 300− 5 ) mg / L

V=
g
Q = 30000 m3/day 4000 × 0.03 / day
m3
S0 = 300 mg/L
V =29500 m3

S = 5 mg/L
X = 4 kg/m3
Y = 0.4
kd = 0.03 day-1
Chlorination
Chlorination
Definition
Process of adding chlorine or its compound to the sewage and its effluents
Purpose
 To disinfect the sewage effluent
 Control of bad odor

 To delay decomposition
 To delay decomposition
 To reduce foaming in bioreactors
Chlorination
Dose
Sl. No. Type of effluent / sewage Chlorine dose (mg/L)
1 Raw sewage (fresh) 12 to 25
2 Settled sewage (fresh) 10 to 20
3 Raw sewage (septic) 25 to 50
4 Settled sewage (septic) 20 to 70
5 Imhoff tank effluent 10 to 20
6 Trickling filter effluent (low rate) 10 to 20
7 Trickling filter effluent (high rate) 30 to 40
8 Intermediate sand filter effluent 3 to 4
9 Activated sludge effluent 5 to 10

Chlorination
Application
 Applied in form of gas or liquid
 Contact period of chlorine is 15 to 30 minutes
 Chlorine is applied at more than one place to increase the efficiency
Other advantage
 Chlorine reduces the production of nitrates and carbon dioxide
Aerated lagoon
Aerated lagoon
Definition
Consists of a pond with aeration facility
Characteristics
 About 2 to 6 m deep
 Aeration is done by mechanical aerators
 Sewage is supplied to the lagoons after passing through grit chamber
 Detention period of 3 to 5 days is provided
 Efficiency is 70 to 90% in terms of BOD removal

Aerated lagoon
Constructed wetlands
Definition
 A constructed wetland (CW) is an artificial wetland to treat municipal or industrial
wastewater, greywater or storm water runoff. Constructed wetlands are engineered systems
that use natural functions vegetation, soil, and organisms to treat wastewater.
Use
 Constructed wetlands have been used to treat both centralized and on-site wastewater.
Primary treatment is recommended when there is a large amount of suspended solids or
soluble organic matter (measured as BOD and COD).
Types
 Surface flow: Wastewater flows above the root level
 Sub-Surface flow: Wastewater flows below the root level

Mechanism
 The planted vegetation plays an important role in contaminant removal. The filter bed,
consisting usually of sand and gravel, has an equally important role to play.
Other advantage
 Some constructed wetlands may also serve as a habitat for native and migratory wildlife,
although that is not their main purpose.
Black water disposal
in
unsewered areas
Black water disposal in unsewered areas
Requirement
 It is applicable to the poor countries where water carriage systems are too expensive to
implement .
 Therefore, privies are constructed to collect the waste released from washrooms,
Different types of privies are,

 Pit Privy
 Bore hole privy
 Concrete vault privy
 Removable receptacle privy
 Septic tank
Pit privy
 It is applicable to the poor countries where water carriage systems are too expensive to
implement .
Pit privy (Peoperties)
 Economical and requires no operation .
 A pit of 1.5 to 2.8 m is dug .
 Squatting seat is provided at the top of the pit .
 A 10 cm diameter vent pipe is provided to release gases .

Bore hole privy
 It has 40 cm long hole instead of pits
Bore hole privy (Properties)
 The depth of the bore hole should be 100 cm less than the ground water table
 The hole should be lined from inside
 The hole should be lined from inside
 When the hole is filled up, it is covered by a thick layer of soil and another hole is dug by
the side of it
Concrete vault privy
 Constructed in pervious soils where water table is very close to ground surface.
Concrete vault privy (Properties)
 When the vault is filled up, it is emptied and cleaned.
 To prevent bad odours soil is thrown over the excreta.
 Squatting pan should be constructed in such a way that no water can enter the vault.
Removable receptacle privy
 Cheap type of privy and used in India in unsewered town.
Removable receptacle privy (properties)
 Requires the services of sweeper for its daily cleaning.
 Consists of metal box placed below the squatting seat.
 The waste is collected daily by the sweeper.

Septic tank
 Constructed in rural areas, institutions and hotels.
Septic tank (properties)
 The location of septic tanks should be as far as possible away from the buildings.
 They should not be near swampy areas.
 They should not be near areas prone to flooding.
 The septic tank effluent should not be allowed to be released in the open drain system.
Refuse disposal
Refuse disposal
Definition of refuse
 Refuse is the all solid and semi-solid waste matters of a community except excreta.
 Broadly classified into,
 Organic matter
 Inorganic matter
Refuse disposal
Quality and quantity of refuse
Mainly consists of the following,
 House refuse: Ashes, cinder, rubbish, debris, from cleaning and demolition of structure,
vegetable, and animal waste matters
 Street refuse: Street sweeping, dirty materials dropped from vehicles, free leaves, empty
match and cigarette boxes, fruit peels, empty packets etc.
 Trade refuse: Solid wastes from factories, business centres, slaughter houses etc.
Mixed refuse is the combination The weight of the refuse can vary
of all the above three types of from 300 to 600 kg/m3
refuses
Refuse disposal
Storage and separation of refuse
 Temporary storage is done at the house levels and industries.
 Adequate containers are provided for this purpose.
 The refuse is taken out twice or thrice a day and dumped in the refuse collection boxes.
Refuse disposal
 These are designed for lifting by one man.
 While designing the storage bins, care is taken so that these bins should increase the
beauty of the area.
 They should be well painted and leak proof.
 Tight fitting cover should be provided at their top.
 Usually refuse containers of 50, 60, 70 and 100 litre capacity are used.
Refuse disposal
 Refuse is separated by their properties.
 Dry and wet waste are separated.
 Different coloured bins are provided to store different types of waste.

Refuse disposal
Collection of refuse
 Depends upon quantity and season.
 Usually the collection of the refuse from the road side refuse containers and bins, and its
proper disposal is the responsibility of the local bodies or municipalities.
 Two categories of work is done,
 The management of workers

 The development of sanitation standards
Refuse disposal
Recovery of refuse
 Source segregation of refuse.
 Separation of recyclable substances.
 Separation of substances with market value.

Refuse disposal
Disposal of refuse
 By dumping into sea
 By sanitary land filling
 By incineration.
 By composting.
 By ploughing in the fields.
 By hog feeding.
Refuse disposal
Disposal of refuse by dumping into sea
 Possible for coastal areas

 Should be 15 to 30 km distant from the nearby town
Refuse disposal
Disposal of refuse by sanitary land filling
 Simple and effective method

 Deep trenches are dug and refuse is filled into them
 Finally soil is covered
Refuse disposal
Disposal of refuse by incineration
 Best method for the disposal of combustible refuse

 Cause little sanitation problems
 Can be used for heat energy generation
Refuse disposal
Disposal of refuse by composting
 Works for organic parts

 Generates a value added product
Refuse disposal
Disposal of refuse by ploughing in the fields
 Uncommon method for large scale

 Used when no dump yard is available
 Generates food for plants
Refuse disposal
Disposal of refuse by hog feeding
 Feeding of vegetable waste to the animals

 Used mostly in western countries
 Generally it is provided in raw form
Industrial waste disposal
General
 Mainly responsible for the pollution of rivers
 Partially treated industrial waste is discharged into sewers
 Waste generation is in acceleration mode due to rapid industrialization

Water pollution by industrialization
 Due to the presence of organic, inorganic and radioactive substances
 Due to the presence of organic impurities
 Due to the presence of various types of oils, dyes, detergents, aromatic and non aromatic
hydrocarbons, amines, acids, alcohols etc
 Due to the presence of many insoluble particles

Industrial waste treatment
 Treatment of dairy waste
 Treatment of waste from meat producing industries
 Treatment of breweries and distilleries waste
 Treatment of Pharmaceutical waste
 Treatment of tannery waste
 Treatment of paper waste
 Treatment of radioactive waste

Treatment of dairy waste
 BOD ranges between 100 to 200 mg/L

 Septic tanks with 1 to 3 day detention period
 Treatment by oxidation ponds, grit chambers, trickling filters and activated sludge are
possible
Treatment of meat production waste
 10 to 15 times stronger than the normal domestic waste

 Segregation of waste is necessary to treat liquid and solid waste
 Treatment by grit chambers, trickling filters, activated sludge, chemical precipitation,
coagulation are possible
Treatment of breweries waste
 High BOD due to the use of molasses

 Suitable for biodegradation process
 Flocculation, irrigation can be used as alternative treatment
Treatment of pharmaceuticals waste
 High COD
 Less suitable for biodegradation
 Physico-chemical treatment becomes necessary
Treatment of tanneries waste
 High chromium and lead presence

 Required membrane filtration and reverse osmosis
 Expensive for treatment
Treatment of paper waste
 High lignin presence

 Suitable for normal and vermi composting
 It depletes the DO if disposed off without treatment
Treatment of radioactive waste
 Mainly from nuclear reactors

 Long storage, dilution with water, burial in ground can be applied
 Highly hazardous
House plumbing
House plumbing
Technical terms
Plumbing tools
Storage of water
Storage capacities
Pipe accessories and fittings
Traps
Sanitary fittings
Technical terms
Technical terms
House plumbing
 The practice, materials and fixtures used in the installation, maintenance, extension and
altercation of all piping appliance and appurtenances in connection with the house or
premises
Plumbing system
 The plumbing system includes the water supply and distribution pipes, plumbing fixtures
and taps, vent pipes and antisiphonage pipes, building drains and building sewers,
including their connections
Plumbing tools
Plumbing tools
 Plumbing tools are used in the common plumbing workshop to medium size (10 cm dia)
pipes
 Hacksaw
 Pipe cutter
 Pipe vice
 Pipe bending machine
 Threading dies
 Pipe wrench
 Chain wrench
 Adjustable wrench
 Water pump plier
 Spanners
Plumbing tools
Hacksaw
rew
sc Handle
ng
s ti
d ju
e a
l ad
B
Blade
 Used for cutting of pipes
 Essentially consists of frame handle, prongs, tightening screw and nut.
 The blade is fixed in position and tightened by means of the tightening screw
Plumbing tools
Pipe cutter
Reels
Handle
 Consists of two fixed reels and one adjustable cutting reel
 The pipe to be cut is placed between the reels.
 The adjustable reel is rotated to cut the pipe

Plumbing tools
Pipe vice
Moving jaw
Pipe
 Used for fixing the pipe in position while threading or cutting the pipe
Plumbing tools
Pipe bending machine Jack handle
Hydraulic jack
Reel
 Consists of two adjustable bending blocks
 Operated by hydraulic operation

Plumbing tools
Threading dies
 Set of pipes dies for threading are used for threading the pipes.
Plumbing tools
Pipe wrench
 Used for tightening and unscrewing of the pipe up to 7.5 cm.
 These pipe wrenches are manufactured from 50 to 60 cm length.

Plumbing tools
Chain wrench
 Used for screwing and unscrewing of large diameter pipes.
 Very common tool of plumbing.

Plumbing tools
Adjustable wrench
 Used for screwing and unscrewing of small diameter pipes.
 Can also be used for tightening of nuts, bolts, fixing small taps, valves etc.
Plumbing tools
Water pump plier
 Used in house plumbing work.
 Common tool for plumbing work.

Plumbing tools
Spanners
Ring spanner Common spanner
 Used for tightening work.

Storage of water
Storage of water
Purpose
 For supplying the water to the consumers during non supply hours
 For reducing the maximum rate of demand
 To secure uninterrupted water supply in case of any damage to the pipings
 When the available is not enough for high rise buildings

Storage of water
Construction
 The reservoirs, cisterns and storage tanks are generally constructed of cast iron, wrought iron
or galvanized mild steel
 Sometimes RCC storage tanks are used
 May be circular, square or rectangular in plan

Storage capacities
Storage capacities
Quantity of storage depends upon the following factors,
 Rate of supply for water works
 Type of buildings such as residential, public or industrial
 Whether water supply is continuous or intermittent
 Frequency of replenishment of tanks

Storage capacities
Standards of storage
 As per IS: 2065-1963
Sl. No Classification of buildings Storage capacities
1 For tenements having common conveniences 900 L per water closet
2 For buildings without tenements 270 L per water closet
3 For factories and workshop 900 L per water closet
4 For cinema and public halls 900 L per water closet

Traps
Traps
Definition and purpose
 Device used to trap foul gases released from washroom waste
 Consists of bend tube which provides water seal between the atmosphere and sewer gas
 Efficiency depends upon the depth of water seal, deeper the seal better is the efficiency
Traps
Requirements of a good trap
 Should be made out of non-absorbent material
 Should provide sufficient depth to the water seal
 Should be self cleaning and should not obstruct the flow of sewage
 Should be provided with access door for cleaning

Traps
Types of trap
 P, Q and S traps
 Gully traps
 An intercepting trap
 Anti-D trap
 Anti-siphon trap
Traps
Types of trap
 P, Q and S traps
 Classified as per their shapes
 Essentially consist of a U-tube which retains water acting as a seal between the foul gas
atmosphere
Traps
Types of trap
 Gully traps
 Provided at different places in drain pipes
 Wastewater enters through the back inlet and unfoul water enters from the top
Traps
Types of trap
 An intercepting trap
 Provided at inspection chambers

 This trap is provided at top with a cleaning eye with a plug
Traps
Types of trap
 Anti-D trap
 Made by ordinary circular sections
 Used to rectify the deficiency of the P, Q, S traps

Traps
Types of trap
 Anti-siphon trap
 Avoid connection to the vent pipe and reduce the expensive work
 When water seal is subjected to the pull due to siphonic action, the heavier atmospheric
pressure on the inlet side presses the water down and the air can pass.
Sanitary fittings
Sanitary fittings
Classification
Ablution fittings Soil fittings
Wash basin
Sinks
Urinals water closets
bath tubs
flushing cisterns
Sanitary fittings
Classification
Wash basins
 Should be of one piece construction and should have slotted overflow hole
 Provided with self cleaning facility
 Provided with circular waste hole

Sanitary fittings
Classification
Sinks
 Rectangular shallow receptacles
 Floor of a sink is given a slope to facilitate better outlet mechanism

Sanitary fittings
Classification
Bath tub
 Made out of plastic, porcelain, iron

 Used in high class residential buildings
Sanitary fittings
Classification
Flushing cisterns
 Used for flushing
 Obsolete now a days
 Chain is pulled to use the flushing mechanism

Sanitary fittings
Classification
Water closet
 Used to collect excreta
 The outlet is connected to soil pipe

Sanitary fittings
Classification
Urinals
 Used to collect urine
 Outlet is provided at the bottom and connected to drains

Unit 3 Miscellaneous Treatment and House Plumbing

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Unit 3 Miscellaneous Treatment and House Plumbing

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Unit 3

Miscellaneous treatment and house plumbing

Microbial action Algal action

Anaerobic zone Release methane

 Surface area is kept as large as possible

 Depth is kept between 50 to 120 cm for aerobic ponds

 Detention period of 10 to 35 days is provided

Quantity of sewage = 2500 × 125 L/day

Quantity of BOD in sewage = 2500 × 125 × 350 mg/day

BOD loading = 200 kg/day/ha = 200 × 106 mg/day/ha

Quantity of BOD 2500 ×125 ×350

Capacity of the tank = surface area × depth = 0.55 ha × 1m = 0.55 × 104 m2 ×1 m

Capacity of the tank = 5500 m3

Detention period = (Capacity of the tank)/(inflow of sewage)

Activated carbon Activated alumina Silica

• Bulk solution transport

• Film diffusion transport

Adsorbent Bulk liquid

 Adsorption isotherm models

Equilibrium time qt = uptake (mg/g)

 Pseudo second order model

Model Nonlinear form Linearized form

Pseudo first order

Pseudo second order

k1 and k2 = Kinetics order constant qe = Equilibrium uptake

 Pseudo Second order model

k1 and qe from the obtained equation.

values of k1 and qe from the obtained equation.

Measurement of equilibrium concentration

b = Energy constant for adsorption Ce = Concentration at equilibrium time

qe = Uptake at equilibrium time (mg/g) n = Freundlich intensity factor

Qm = Maximum monolayer capacity qe = Uptake at equilibrium time (mg/g)

and b from the obtained equation.

of n and Kf from the obtained equation.

Determine the volume of an oxidation ditch to treat 30000 m3/day of wastewater.

expected to be 5 mg/L. Biomass concentration is 4 kg/m3, yield constant id 0.4 and

degradation constant is 0.03 day-1.

Given: 0.4 × 30000 𝑚 3 / 𝑑𝑎𝑦 × ( 300− 5 ) mg / L

 Control of bad odor

1 Raw sewage (fresh) 12 to 25

2 Settled sewage (fresh) 10 to 20

3 Raw sewage (septic) 25 to 50

4 Settled sewage (septic) 20 to 70

5 Imhoff tank effluent 10 to 20

6 Trickling filter effluent (low rate) 10 to 20

7 Trickling filter effluent (high rate) 30 to 40

8 Intermediate sand filter effluent 3 to 4

9 Activated sludge effluent 5 to 10

 Contact period of chlorine is 15 to 30 minutes

 Chlorine is applied at more than one place to increase the efficiency

 Sewage is supplied to the lagoons after passing through grit chamber

 Detention period of 3 to 5 days is provided

 Efficiency is 70 to 90% in terms of BOD removal

 Sub-Surface flow: Wastewater flows below the root level

Different types of privies are,

 Bore hole privy

 Concrete vault privy

 Removable receptacle privy

 A pit of 1.5 to 2.8 m is dug .

 Squatting seat is provided at the top of the pit .

 A 10 cm diameter vent pipe is provided to release gases .

 The hole should be lined from inside

 The hole should be lined from inside