Course Name: Biomedical Instrumentation Course Code: MC1652: Wednesday, March 30, 2016 1

Course Name: Biomedical Instrumentation
Course Code: MC1652
Wednesday, March 30, 2016 1

Books/References
 J. G. Webster , Medical Instrumentation: Application
And Design, 3rd edition ,Wiley Publishers
 D Reddy, Biomedical Signal Processing, Tata Mcgraw
Hill Publications.
 Sergio Cerutti Advanced Methods of Biomedical Signal
Processing, Oxford Publications.
 B. Jacobson, J.G. Webster, Medical and Clinical
Engineering,
Prentice Hall, International.
 Cromwell, Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements,
Prentice Hall, International.
 R.S. Khandupur, Handbook of Biomedical
Instrumentation, -
Tata McGraw Hill
Introduction
Instrumentation : Instrumentation is the use

of measuring instruments to monitor and
control a process. It is the art and science of
measurement and control of process variables
within a production, laboratory, or
manufacturing area.

Introduction
Biomedical Instrumentation : Biomedical

Instrumentation is the field of creating such
instruments that help us to measure, record
and transmit data to or from the body
COMPONENT OF MAN INSTRUMENT SYSTEM

Basic Objectives of Instrumentation System
 Information Gathering
 Diagnosis
 Evaluation
 Monitoring
 Control

Classification of Bio Medical Instrumentation
System
 Clinical Instrumentation
Basically devoted to the area of
 Diagnosis
 Patient care
 Treatment of Patients ( Therapeutic use )

Classification of Bio Medical Instrumentation
System
 Research Instrumentation
 It is used primarily in the search for new knowledge
related to various systems that compose the human
organism.
 Some instruments can be used in both areas.

Classification of Instruments Used
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Engineering Medical
Indicating
Diagnostic
Recording
Therapeutic
Monitoring
Data Logging Supplementary
Analysis
8
C
Wednesday ,
Engineering Classification of Biomedical
Instruments
 Measuring Instruments.
 Audiometer
 Blood cell counter
 Blood Pressure meter
 Blood PH meter
 Blood flow meter
 Digital BP meter
 GSR meter
 Stethoscope

Recording Instruments
 Electrocardiograph
 Electromyograph
 Electro encephalograph
 Expirograph
 Phonocardiograph
 Plethysmograph
 Thermograph
 Tomograph
 Ultra sonograph
 Radio graph ( x-ray)
Monitoring Instruments
 Bed – side monitor
 Bio – monitor
 Foetal monitor

Analysing Instruments
 Colorimeter
 Spectrometer
 Flame photo meter

Data Logging and Controlling
Instruments
 Data Logging
- Computer
 Controlling
- Defibrillat
or
- Dialysis
instrume
nt
- Heart
A) Medical Classification of BMI
 Diagnostic instruments
 Endoscope
 Stethoscope
 Microscope

B)Therapeutic Instruments
 Shortwave diathermy
 Ultrasound therapy
 Electro surgery
 Nuclear Medicine

B)Supplimentary Instruments
 Aid for blind
 Hearing aid
 Pace maker

Functional Classification of
Instruments
A. BLOOD
INSTRUMENTS
1. Blood
Pressure
meter
2. Blood PH
meter
3. Blood
flow
meter
4. Blood cell
counter
5. Calorimet
Wednesday, March 30, 2016
er 17
6. Spectra –
Contd…
B. HEART INSTRUMENT
1. ECG
2. Pace Maker
3. Defibrillator
4. Heart Lung Machine
5. Bed side monitor
6. Plethysmograph
7. Electronic stethoscope
8. Phonocardiograph

Contd….
C. BRAIN INSTRUMENTS
1. EEG
2. Tomo-graph
D. MUSCLE INSTRUMENTS
1. E MG
2. Muscle Stimulator

Contd….
E) KIDNEY INSTRUMENTS
1. Dialysis Instrument
2. Lithotripsy
F. EAR INSTRUMENTS
1. Audiometer
2. Hearing aid

Contd….
G) EYE INSTRUMENTS
1.Occulometer
2.Aid for
blind
H. LU N G
INSTRU
MENT
Contd….
I) BODY INSTRUMENTS
1. Ultra Sonography
2. Thermograph
3. Radiograph
4. Endoscope

Contd….
J) PHYSIOTHERAPY
INSTRUMENTS
1. Diathermy, Short wave

2. Vibrator ( Massage type )
3. U.V. Lymph
4. Microwave diathermy

Anatomy and Physiology
The science of structure of the body is

known as A N AT O M Y
Classification :
Gross ANATOMY
Topographical ANATOMY
Microscopic ANATOMY

Anatomy and Physiology
Physiology which relates to the normal

function of the organs of the body .
Example :
 Cell Physiology
 Pathaphysiology
- Circulatory Physiology
- Respiratory Physiology

Physiological Systems of the body
 Human body contains various

systems such as electrical ,mechanical,
hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical and
thermal etc.
 Systems communicate internally with each
other and with external environment.
 With this, enable to perform useful tasks,
sustain life and reproduce itself.

Major Subsystems of the body
1. Cardiovascular System
 Cardio = “heart”
Vascular = “vessels”
 It performs the essential service of transportation of oxygen, carbon dioxide
numerous chemical compounds and the blood cells.
 System made up of “heart” , “vessels and “blood”

Function of Cardiovascular System

 Delivering materials to cells
 Carrying wastes away
 In addition, blood contains cells that fight disease.

Heart
 Heart is divided into two parts right and Left-each
part
has two chambers called atrium and ventricle.
 Heart has four valves:
-Tricuspid valve or Right Ventricle valve
- Bicuspid Mitral or Left Ventricle Valve
- Pulmonary Valve
- Aortic Valve
 Heart wall consist of three layers:
- Pericardium
- Myocardium
- Endocardium

Pathways of Blood
The Heart
1) Major vessel from 5 5) The. aorta carries

1 blood from the left
upper body to heart
ventricle to the body
2) Vessels from 6 6) Vessel from
lung to heart to lungs
2
heart
3) Right Atrium 7) Vessels from
3 7
The right atrium lung to
receives blood from heart
8
the body that is 8) Left Atrium
low in oxygen and Oxygen-rich blood is
4 9
high in carbon carried from the lungs
dioxide. to the left atrium.
4) Right Ventricle 9) Left Ventricle
The right ventricle The left ventricle
pumps oxygen-poor pumps oxygen-rich
blood to the lungs. blood from the heart.

Three types of blood vessels

 Arteries - move blood away from the heart
-Most arteries carry oxygen-rich blood
-The largest artery in the body is the Aaorta
have thick walls that are both strong and flexible.
 Veins - move blood toward the heart
 Capillaries - tiny blood vessels that connect arteries and

veins
-Branching from the smallest arteries are capillaries, the
smallest blood vessels in your body.
-As blood flows through the capillaries, oxygen and
dissolved nutrients diffuse through the capillary walls and
into your body’s cells.
-Capillaries are involved in temperature regulation.
Function of the blood

 Carries oxygen from lungs to all body cells and removes carbon dioxide from the
cells
Carries waste products of cell activity to the kidneys to be removed from the body
Transports nutrients from the digestive system to body cells
White blood cell

Red blood cell

Conduction System of the heart

 Cardiac conduction system: The electrical conduction system
controls the heart rate
 This system creates the electrical impulses and sends them

throughout the heart. These impulses make the heart
contract and pump blood.

2. Respiratory System
 The Primary function of respiratory system is to supplies the
blood with oxygen so that the blood can deliver oxygen to all parts
of the body.
 It also removes carbon dioxide waste that cells produce.

Amazing Facts About the Respiratory System
Did you know that...

 Your right lung has three lobes and your left lung
only has two?
 The right lung is a little larger than the left lung?
 A person sleeping almost always breathes
twelve or fifteen times a minute?
More Amazing Facts About the Respiratory System
Did You Know That...

 The exhaling rate is faster in kids than in adults?
 The trachea is made out of cartilage shaped rings?
 The fastest recorded “ sneeze speed” is 165 km
per hour?
 It is healthier to breathe through your nose
than your mouth, because your nose hairs and
mucus clean the air.
3. Nervous System
 Control center for all body activities.
 Responds and adapts to changes that occur both
inside and outside the body
(Ex: pain, temperature, pregnancy)

your nervous system
is divided into the central

nervous system
(CNS)
which is the brain and
spinal cord
and the
peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
which connects
everything
Wednesday, March 30, 2016 to the brain and spinal 39
cord
Central Nervous System
 Brain : a mass of 100 billion neurons located inside the

skull.
- Cerebrum : largest part of human brain
- Cerebellum : at base of brain
- Brain Stem : connects brain to spinal cord
 Spinal Cord : Column of nerves from brain to tailbone –
protected by vertebrae of spine
-Responsible for:
-Conducting impulses between the brain and the rest of
the body
*Impulses may travel as fast at 268 miles/hr.
 Neurons

different regions have different
Cerebral cortex
functions Functions include:
planning; reasoning;
language; recognising
sounds and images;
Corpus memory.
callosum
connects the brain’s
right and left
hemispheres
Brain stem
regulates heart
rate, breathing, Cerebellum
Credit: Mark Lythgoe & Chloe Hutton, Wellcome Images

sleep cycles important for
and emotions coordination,
precision and timing
of movement
Peripheral Nervous System
Nerves : visible bundles of

axons and dendrites that
entend from the brain and
spinal cord to all other parts
of the body
- Motory Nerves
- Sensory Nerves

the cells of the nervous system are called neurones
dendrites nerve endings
myelin sheath
cell body
nucleus
axon
structure of a neurone
there are different types of
neurone
dendrites direction of
cell body electrical
signal
myelin
sheath
axon
nerve
endings
motor neurone sensory neurone relay neurone

sends signals to your muscles sends signals from connects neurones to
to tell them to move your sense other neurones
organs
neurones communicate with each other using a
mixture of electrical & chemical signals
dendrites nerve endings
But what happens when the signal

myelin sheath
reaches the end of the axon?
cell body
nucleus an electrical
signal is
transmitted
along the axon
axon
What do you think can
change neurons and their
connections?
• Accidents
• Drugs
• Alcohol
• Disease
Accidents
• Physical injury of your neurons
Drugs and alcohol bind important receptors on neurons
Drugs = neuron death
Alcohol damages dendrites - can
repair after abstinence
Alcohol blocks
receptors and slows
down transmission
•Parkinson's Disease
•ALS - Lou Gehrig’s Disease
•Huntington’s Disease
•Multiple Sclerosis
•Alzheimer's
•Cerebral Palsy
•Epilepsy
•? SIDS
Facts-Did you know
There are around 47 miles of nerves in

your body.
One nerve cell may be connected to 1000
more.
Your nerve impulses can travel up to 390
feet per second.
 Thousands of nerve cells die each day

What if
neurons
die here?
or here or here
or here
or here
Transducer
s
• Transducer
– a device that converts primary form of energy into other
different energy form only for measurement purposes.
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical,
chemical, etc.
• Sensor
– It is a wide term which covers almost everything from human
eye to trigger of a pistol.
– Senses the change in parameter(specific).
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
 Active & Passive Transducers

 Analog & Digital Transducers
 Primary & secondary Transducers
 On the basis of principle used
Active vs Passive Transducers:
Passive Transducers:
 Add energy to the measurement environment as part of the
measurement process.
 Requires external power supply.
 Strain gauge, potentiometer & etc.
Active Transducers :
 Do not add energy as part of the measurement process but may
remove energy in their operation.
 Does not require external power supply
 Thermocouple, photo-voltaic cell & etc.

ANALOG & DIGITAL
TRANSDUCERS
ANALOG TRANSDUCER The
- transducers which convert
the
quantity into an analog output whichinput
is
a continuous function of time.
DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS The
- transducers which
convert into digital
quantity the form means in the input
form of pulses.
PRIMARY vs SECONDARY
TRANSDUCERS
 PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS - Some transducers contain
the mechanical as well as electrical device. The mechanical
device converts the physical quantity to be measured into a
mechanical signal. Such mechanical device are called
as the primary transducers.
 SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS - The electrical device
then convert this mechanical signal into a corresponding
electrical signal. Such electrical device are known as
secondary transducers
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF
PRINCIPLE USED
 Capacitive
 Inductive
 Resistive
 Electromagnetic
 Piezoelectric
 Photoconductive
 Photovoltaic
Selecting a Transducer
 What is the physical quantity to be measured?

 Which transducer principle can best be used to measure this quantity?
 What accuracy is required for this measurement?
🞑 Fundamental transducer parameters
🞑 Physical conditions
🞑 Environmental conditions
🞑 Compatibility of the associated equipment
 Reducing the total measurement error :
🞑 Using in-place system calibration with corrections performed in the
data reduction
🞑 Artificially controlling the environment to minimize possible errors
Transducers for Physiological Variable
Measurements
• A variable is any quantity whose value changes

with time. A variable associated with the
physiological processes of the body is known as
a physiological variable.
• Physiological variables occur in many forms: as
ionic potential, mechanical movements,
hydraulic pressure ,flows and body temperature
etc.
• Different transducers are used for different
physiological variables.
Bio-Electric Potential

2016
Electrical Activity
Measurement
• Electrodes:
– Electrodes convert ionic potential into electrical signals.
– Used for EEG, ECG, EMG, ERG and EOG etc.
– Different types of Electrodes are:
1) Surface Electrodes(no. Of muscles)

These electrodes are used to obtain bioelectric potentials from the surface of
the body.
2) Needle electrodes(specific to a muscle)
These electrodes are inserted into body to obtain localized measurement of
potentials
from a specific muscle.
3) Microelectrodes(cellular level record)
Electrodes have tips sufficiently small to penetrate a single cell in order to obtain
readings from within cell.
Electrical Activity Measurement(cont.)
• Working of Electrodes:
• When metal electrodes come in contact with electrolyte then ion-electron
exchange takes place as a result of electro-chemical reaction.
One atom M out One cation M+

of the metal out of the electrolyte
is oxidized to form becomes one neutral
one cation M+ and atom M
giving off one free taking off one free
electron e- to the electron
metal. from the metal
Electrical Activity
Measurement(cont.)
 Half-cell potential
Oxidation and reduction processes take place when metal comes in contact
with Electrolyte .
Net current flow is zero but there exists a potential difference depends upon the
position of equilibrium and concentration of ions. That p.d. is known as half-cell
potential.
 Over-potential
If there is a current between the electrode and electrolyte then half-cell
potential altered due to polarization is known as over-potential.
Electrical Activity
Measurement(cont.)
 Types of Electrodes:
 Perfectly Polarizable Electrodes
- only displacement current, electrode behave like a capacitor
example: noble metals like platinum Pt
 Perfectly Non-Polarizable electrode

- current passes freely across interface,
- no overpotential
examples:
- silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl),
- mercury/mercurous chloride
ECG

2016
EEG

2016
Electrode Placement

2016
Block Diagram of ECG

2016
Effects of Artefacts on ECG Recording
 Power Line Interference

Shifting of the baseline
Muscle tremors

2016
Types of ECG Recorder
 Single-channel Recorders
 Three –channel Recorders
 Vector electrocardiographs( vector-cardiography)
 Electrocardiograph systems for stress testing
 Electrocardiographs for computer processing
 Continuous ECG recording (Holter Recording )

2016
Phonocardiograph (PCG)
• A Phonocardiogram is a recording of the heart sounds and

murmurs.
• Eliminates subjective interpretation of the heart sounds
• Enables evaluation of the heart sounds and murmurs with

respect to the electric and mechanical events in the cardiac
cycle.
• Evaluation of the result is based on the basis of changes in the

wave shape and various timing parameters.

2016
Heart Sounds
• S1 – onset of the ventricular

contraction
• S2 – closure of the semilunar valves
• S3 – ventricular gallop
• S4 – atrial gallop
• Other – opening snap, ejection sound
74
• Murmurs
Microphones for Phonocardiography
• The phonocardiograph transducer is a contact or air-

coupled acoustical microphone held against the
patient's chest (shown in fig).
• Various types of microphones are used, but most are
the piezoelectric crystal or dynamic type of
construction.
75
Microphones for Phonocardiography
• The crystal microphone generally costs less and is more

rugged than the dynamic type.
• Also, the crystal microphone produces a larger output signal
for a given level of stimulus
• The dynamic microphone uses a moving coil coupled to
the acoustical diaphragm.
• The dynamic microphone is used when it is desirable to
have a signal frequency response similar to that of the
medical stethoscope.
• An air-coupled microphone with a 2-s time constant is
often used in apex phonocardiography. 76
EEG
 Electrical Activity of the brain

EEG electrodes are smaller than E C G
 It is an Effective method for diagnosing
many neurological, disorder such as
epilepsy, tumour etc.

2016
EEG Electrode Placement

2016
Brain Wave Classification
EEG rhythms correlate with patterns of behavior (level of attentiveness,

sleeping, waking, seizures, coma).
Rhythms occur in distinct frequency ranges:
G amma: 20-60 Hz (“cognitive” frequency band)
Beta: 14-20 Hz (activated cortex)
Alpha: 8-13 Hz (quiet waking)
Theta: 4-7 Hz (sleep stages)
Delta: less than 4 Hz (sleep
stages, especially
Higher frequencies: active processing, relatively de-synchronized activity
“deep sleep”)
(alert wakefulness, dream sleep).
Lower frequencies: strongly synchronized activity (nondreaming sleep,
coma).

2016
Brain Wave Classification
The period of High Frequency EEG that occurs during sleep is called
Paradoxical sleep or REM (Rapid Eye Movement).
Wednesday, Ma rch 30, 80

2016
Effects of Artefacts on EEG
 Biological Artefacts
 Eye Induced
Artefacts Physiological
 Cardiac Artefacts Artefacts
 Muscle Artefacts
 Respiration Artefacts
 60 Hz Interference
 EEG Electrodes Non Physiological Artefacts
 Environmental
Artefacts

2016
Block Diagram of EEG

2016
Evoked Potential
 If an external stimulus is applied to the sensory area of

brain, it responds by producing a electrical potential
known as Evoked Potential.
 Classification:
Visual Evoked Potential

Auditory Evoked Potential
SomatoSensory Evoked Potential

2016
Blood Pressure
 Blood pressure is indicates your heart health

 It is determined by the contractions of the heart
 Your pressure varies depending on the condition of your
heart and blood vessels
 Pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm
Hg)
Wednesday, M arch 30,

2016 84
Blood Pressure

2016
Blood Pressure Risks
• High blood pressure (hypertension) increases the risk of:
 Chest pain (angina).
 Heart attack.
 Heart failure.
 Kidney failure.
 Stroke.
 Blocked arteries in the legs or arms (peripheral arterial
disease.
 Eye damage .
 Aneurysms (permanent cardiac or arterial dilatation).
12/3/2013 86
Cont. Blood Pressure Risks
87
Cont. Blood Pressure Risks
• Low blood pressure (hypotension) increases the risk of:
 Reduces the blood flow to the brain and other vital organs.
 Dizziness or fainting.
 Lack of concentration.
 Blurred vision.
 Fatigue.
 Cold and clammy skin.
 Rapid shallow breathing.
12/3/2013 BMTS 353 88

Blood Pressure Measurement
 Blood pressure measurement techniques are generally put into two broad
classes:
1) DIRECT TECHNIQUES
Direct techniques of blood pressure measurement, which are also known as
invasive techniques, involve a catheter to be inserted into the vascular
system.
eg. Percutaneos insertion, Catheterization etc
2) INDIRECT TECHNIQUES
The indirect techniques are non-invasive, with improved patient comfort and
safety, but at the expense of accuracy. eg. Sphygmomanometer,
Rheographic Method, Oscillometric Method, Ultrasonic Doppler Method
etc
Blood Pressure (Sphygmomanometer/ Auscultatoy
Method)

2016
Auscultatory Method (cont.)
ADVANTAGES
+) Auscultatory technique is simple and does not require
much equipment
DISADVANTAGES
-) Auscultatory tecnique cannot be used in noisy environment
-) The observations differ from observer to another
-) A mechanical error might be introduced into the system e.g.
mercury leakage, air leakage, obstruction in the cuff etc.
-) The observations do not always correspond with intra-arterial
pressure
-) The technique does not give accurate results for infants

and hypotensive patients
How to measure?
 Non-invasive blood pressure
 Auscultation
Mercury sphygmomanometer Mechanical manometer

+ stethoscope + stethoscope
 Oscillometry
The auscultation method
Systolic BP
Diastolic BP
The oscillometric method
The oscillometric method
 It is based on the
change of the
magnitude of
oscillation
 MAP – Mean
Arterial Pressure
Oscillometric Method
The intra-arterial pulsation is
transmitted via cuff to transducer
(e.g. piezo-electric)
The cuff pressure is deflated either
linearly or stepwise
The arterial pressure oscillations

(which can be detected throughout the
measurement i.e. when P c>ufSf P
and DP) are superimposed on the cuff
P <
cuf f
pressure
http://colin-europe.com/docpdfdemos/oscillo0104.wmv
SP and DP are estimated from the amplitudes of the oscillation by using a

(proprietary) empirical algorithm.
Oscillometric Method (cont.)
ADVANTAGES
+) In the recent years,
oscillometric methods have
become popular for their
simplicity of use and
reliability.
+) MP can be measured
reliably even in the case
of hypotension
DISADVANTAGE
-) Many devices use fixed
algorithms leading to
large variance in blood
pressures
Ultrasonic Method
A transcutaneous (through the skin)
Doppler sensor is applied here.
The motion of blood-vessel walls in

various states of occlusion is
measured.
The vessel opens and closes with each

heartbeat when
DP < P cuff< SP
The frequency difference between

transmitted (8 MHz) and
received signal is 40-500 Hz and
it is
proportional to velocities of the
wall motion and the blood.
Ultrasonic Method (cont.)
As the cuff pressure is increased, the time between opening and closing
decreases until they coincide Systolic pressure
Again as the cuff pressure is decreased, the time between opening and closing
increases until they coincide Diastolic pressure
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

+) Can be also used in noisy environment
+) Can be used with infants and hypotensive individuals
-) Subject’s movements change the path from sensor to vessel
Direct Methods
in
Blood Pressure
Measurements
General Facts
Direct measurement = Invasive
A vessel is punctured and a catheter (a flexible tube) is guided in
measurement
The most common sites are brachial and radial arteries
but also other sites can be used e.g. femoral artery
A division is made into extravascular and

intravascular sensor systems
This method is precise but it is

also a complex procedure
involving many risks….
Used only when essential to determine the blood

pressure continuously and
accurately in dynamic circumstances
Extravascular Sensor
The ’normal’ measuring
system
The sensor is located behind the

catheter and the vascular pressure is
transmitted via this liquid-filled
catheter.
The actual pressure sensor can be

e.g.
strain gage
variable inductance
variable capacitance
optoelectronic
piezoelectric, etc…
Extravascular Sensor (cont.)
The hydraylic link is the major source of errors. The system’s natural frequency
may be damped and degraded due (e.g.):
.
too narrow catheter
too long tubing
various narrow connections
air bubbles in the catheter
The catheter-sensor system must be flushed

with saline-heparine solution every few
minutes in order to prevent blood from
clotting at the tip.
Extravascular Sensor (cont.)
Normally the interesting frequency range is 0 – 100 Hz.

If only MP is measured the bandwidth is 20 Hz (harmonics > 10 are
ignored)
Intravascular Sensor
The sensor is located in the tip of the catheter. This way the hydraulic connection
is replaced with an electrical or optical connection
The dispacement of the diaphragm

is measured
+) The frequency response is not limited

by the hydraulic properties of the system.
No time delay.
+) Electrical safety and isolation when
using fiber optics
-) Breaks easily
-) More expensive
Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is an important signal in determining the functional integrity of the

cardiovascular system. Scientists and physicians have been interested in blood
pressure measurement for a long time.
Transducers for Blood Pressure
Measurement
 Strain Gauges
Resistance is related to length and area of cross-section of the
resistor and resistivity of the material as
By taking logarithms and differentiating both sides, the equation
becomes
Dimension piezoresistanc
al e
Strain gage component can be related by poisson’s ratio as
Measurement(cont.)
 Strain Gauges
Gage Factor of a strain gage
Think of this as a
Transfer Function!
Input is strain
 Output is dR
G is a measure of
sensitivity
Put mercury strain gauge around an arm or chest to measure force of muscle
contraction or respiration, respectively
 Used in prosthesis or neonatal apnea detection, respectively
Measurement(cont.)
 Strain Gauges
Measurement(cont.)
 Inductive Pressure Sensors ( LVDT)
Primary Secondary Displacement Sensor
An inductor is basically a coil of

A transformer is made of at least two
wire over a “core” (usually ferrous)
coils wound over the core: one is
It responds to electric or magnetic primary and another is secondary
fields
Inductors and tranformers work only for ac signals
Measurement(cont.)
 Capacitive Pressure Sensors
When there is difference in P1 & P2

then diaphragm moves toward low
pressure side and accordingly
capacitance varies. So, capacitance
becomes function of pressure and
that pressure can be measured by using
bridge ckt.
It can be used for blood pressure

measurent.
Measurement(cont.)
 Capacitive Pressure Sensors
Pressure
An example of a capacitive sensor is a pressure sensor.

In parts a, the thin sensor diaphragm remains parallel to the fixed
electrode and in part b, the diaphragm deflects under applied
pressure resulting in capacitance change
Measurement(cont.)
 Fibre-optic pressure sensor

The other pressure sensing approach, characterized by a
diaphragm in front of the fibre optic link, is based on the light
intensity modulation of the reflected light caused by the
pressure-induced position of the diaphragm.
Blood Flow
• Blood flow helps to understand basic physiological
processes and e.g. the dissolution of a medicine into the
body.
• Blood flow and changes in blood volume, are usually
correlated with concentration of nutrients and other
substance in the blood.
• Also, Blood Flow measurement reflects the
concentration of O2.
116
Blood Flow
• A measure of the velocity of blood in a major vessel. In a
vessel of known diameter , this can be calibrated as flow
and is most successful accomplished in arterial vessels.
Used to estimate heart output and circulation. Requires
exposure of the vessel. Flow transducer surrounds vessel.
Methods of measurement include
• Electro-magnetic
• Ultrasonic principles
• Fibre-optic laser Doppler flowmetry
• Thermal Convection
• Blood Flow Determination by Radiographic Method
Blood Flow Measurement
 Electromagnetic Flow meters

• Based on Faraday’s law of induction that a conductor that moves through a
uniform magnetic field, or a stationary conductor placed in a
varying magnetic field generates emf on the conductor:
• When blood flows in the vessel with velocity u and passes through
the magnetic field B, the induced emf e measured at the electrodes
is.
L
e   u  B  dL
0
For uniform B and uniform velocity profile
u, the induced emf is e=BLu. Flow can be
obtained by multiplying the blood velocity
u with the vessel cross section A.
Blood Flow Measurement(cont.)
 Electromagnetic Flow meter Probes

• Comes in 1 mm increments for
1 ~ 24 mm diameter blood vessels
• Individual probes cost $500 each
• Only used with arteries, not veins, as
collapsed veins during diastole lose
contact with the electrodes
• Needless to say, this is an
INVASIVE measurement!!!
• A major advantage is that it can
measure instantaneous blood flow,
not just average flow.
 Ultrasonic Flow meters

 Based on the principle of measuring the time it takes for an
acoustic wave launched from a transducer to bounce off red
blood cells and reflect back to the receiver.
 All UT transducers, whether used for flowmeter or other
applications, invariably consists of a piezoelectric material,
which generates an acoustic (mechanical) wave when excited by
an electrical force (the converse is also true)
 UT transducers are typically used with a gel that fills the air
gaps between the transducer and the object examined
 Ultrasonic Flow meters

The Doppler blood-flow measurement
Doppler blood flow detectors

operate by means of continuous
sinusoidal excitation. The
frequency difference calibrated for
flow velocity can be displayed or
transformed by a loudspeaker into
an audio output.
Cont. Blood Flow
Normal blood flow velocity 0,5 m/s 1 m/s (Systolic, large vessel)
122
123
Ultrasonic Doppler Method
• The blood cells in the fluid
reflects the ultrasound signal
with a shift in the ultrasonic
frequency due to its movement.
• In the recent years ultrasound contrast agents have been used

in order to increase the echoes.
v
fd  2 c
c
f f c = 2 – 10 MHz
f d = 1,3 – 13 kHz
c = 1500 - 1600 m/s (1540 m/s)
124
Laser Doppler Flowmetry
• The principle of measurement is the
same as with ultrasound Doppler.
• The laser parameter may have e.g.
the following properties:
5 mW
He-Ne-laser
632,8 nm wavelength
• The method is used for capillary
(microvascular) blood flow
measurements.
125
Thermal convection flowmeter
Invasive, probe positioning is difficult.

The stronger F gets, The sharper the temperatur
is decreased.
(1) Bios current => Thermister heating

(2) T2 Thermister is cooled by thermal convection.
(cf.) respiratory monitoring by thermister
Temp. of inspiration is 25˚C.

Temp. of expiration is 36.5˚C.
Radiographic Method
 Blood is not normally visible on an X-ray image because it has about the same
radio density as the surrounding tissue.
 By the injection of a medium into the blood vessel, the circulation pattern
can be made locally visible.
 On a sequential record of the X- ray image, the progress of the contrast
medium can be followed,obstructions can be detected and the blood flow in
the blood vessels can be estimated known as CINE or ANGIOGRAPHY.
Plethysmography Method
(Strain Gage)
Plethysmography means the methods
for recording volume changes of an
organ or a body part.
• Strain gage is made of silicone rubber tubes, which are filled

with conductive liquid (e.g. mercury) whose impedance changes
with volume.
• Venous occlusion cuff is inflated to 40 – 50 mmHg. In this way
there will be the arterial inflow into the limb but no venous outflow.
128
Plethysmography
Method (Electric-
•
Impedance)
Different tissues in a body have a different resistivity. Blood is one
of the best conductors in a body.
• A constant current is
applied via skin electrodes.
• The change in the
impedance
is measured.
• The accuracy is often poor.
129
Plethysmography Method
(Photoelectric)
• A beam of IR-light is directed to
the part of the tissue which is to
be measured for blood flow
(e.g. a finger or ear lobe).
• The blood flow modulates the attenuated / reflected light which
is recorded.
• The light that is transmitted / reflected is collected with a
photo detector.
Method is simple Poor measure for changes in volume
Heart rate is clearly seen Very sensitive to motion artefacts
130
Pulse sensors
Heart rate measurement is one of the very important parameters of the human
cardiovascular system. The heart rate of a healthy adult at rest is around 72 beats per
minute (bpm).
Basically, the device consists of an infrared transmitter LED and an infrared sensor
photo-transistor. The transmitter-sensor pair is clipped on one of the fingers of the
subject. The LED emits infrared light to the finger of the subject. The photo-transistor
detects this light beam and measures the change of blood volume through the finger
artery. This signal, which is in the form of pulses is then amplified and filtered suitably
and is fed to a low-cost microcontroller for analysis and display
Pulse Sensor(cont.)
The microcontroller counts the number of pulses over a fixed time interval and thus
obtains the heart rate of the subject. Several such readings are obtained over a known
period of time and the results are averaged to give a more accurate reading of the
heart rate. The calculated heart rate is displayed on an LCD in beats-per-minute in
the following format:
Rate = nnn bpm
133
Indicator Dilution Methods
(Dye Dilution)
• A bolus of indicator, a colored dye (indocyanine green),
is rapidly injected in to the vessel.
• The concentration is measured in the downstream
• The blood is drawn through a colorimetric cuvette and
the concentration is measured using the principle of
absorption photometry.
134
Indicator Dilution Methods
(Thermal Dilution)
• A bolus of chilled saline solution is injected into

the blood circulation system (right atrium).
• This causes decrease in the artery temperature.
• Catheter-tip probes are used to measure the change in
tempreture.
135
Cardiac
Output
When the heart
contracts
Cardiac
Output
Cardiac Output is the volume of blood pumped
each minute, and is expressed by the following
equation:
• CO = SV x HR
• Where:
• CO is cardiac output expressed in L/min
(normal ~5 L/min)
• SV is stroke volume per beat
• HR is the number of beats per minute
Cardiac Output Measurement
(Fick Technique)
140
Cardiac Output Measurement
(Fick Technique)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nAgmCoqAoPo
141
Echocardiogram
• An echocardiogram is a test in which ultrasound is
used to examine the heart.
• Displaying a cross-sectional "slice" of the beating
heart, including the chambers, valves and the
major blood vessels that exit from the left and
right ventricle
• M-mode
• two- dimensional (2-D) Echo
• Doppler Examination
• 3-D echo
What information does
Echocardiography and Doppler
provide?
• Size of the chambers of the heart
• Pumping function of the heart
• Valve Function
• Volume status
• Other Uses: fluid in the pericardium,
congenital heart diseases, blood clots
or tumors within the heart
3-D Echo
Electromyography(EMG)
• Electromyogram (EMG) is a technique for
evaluating and recording the activation signal of
muscles.
• EMG is performed by an electromyograph,
which records an electromyogram.
• Electromyograph detects the electrical potential
generated by muscle cells when these cells
contract and relax.
INTRODUCTION Contd.
EMG Apparatus Muscle Structure/EMG

ELECTRICAL
CHARACTERITICS
• The electrical source is the muscle membrane
potential of about -70mV.
• Measured EMG potentials range between
< 50 μV up to 20 to 30 mV, depending on the
muscle under observation.
• Typical repetition rate of muscle unit firing is
about 7-20 Hz.
• Damage to motor units can be expected at
ranges between 450 and 780 mV
ELECTRODE
TYPES
Intramuscular -
Needle Electrodes
Extramuscular - Surface
Electrodes
EMG PROCEDURE
• Clean the site of application
of electrode;
• Insert needle/place
surface electrodes at
muscle belly;
• Record muscle activity at
rest;
• Record muscle activity
upon voluntary contraction
EMG Contd.
• Muscle Signals are
Analog in nature.
• EMG signals are also

Analog Signal
collected over a
specific period of
time.
EMG Contd.
EMG processing:
Signal pick up Amplification

& Filtering
Computer Conversion of Analog

signals to Digital signals
APPLICATION OF EMG
• EMG can be used for diagnosis of
Neurogenic or Myogenic
Diseases.
• You tube link of EMG

Patient Care, Monitoring and Safety Measures
 The Patient Monitoring System (PMS) is a very critical monitoring systems,

it is used for monitoring physiological signals including Electrocardiograph
(ECG), Respiration , Invasive and Non-Invasive Blood Pressure, Oxygen
Saturation in Human Blood (SpO2), Body Temperature and other Gases etc.
 In PMS, the multiple sensor and electrodes is used for receiving

physiological signals like as E CG Electrodes, SpO2Finger Sensor, Blood
Pressure Cuff and Temperature Probe to measure the physiological signals.
155
Patient Care, Monitoring and Safety Measures
 During treatment, it is highly important to continuously monitor the vital

physiological signs of the patient. Therefore , patient monitoring systems has
always been occupying a very important position in the field of medical devices.
 The continuous improvement of technologies not only helps us transmit the vital
physiological signs to the medical personnel but also simplifies the measurement
and as a result raises the monitoring efficiency of patients.
156
Classes of Patient Monitoring System
In the past, the dominant products manufactured by

medical device manufacturers are mainly those for
single parameter measurement. Nowadays however,
a multi-parameter patient monitor is commonly
used.
1.Single-Parameters Monitoring Systems
2.Multi-Parameter Patient Monitoring Systems
157
Single Parameter Monitoring
System
The single parameter monitoring system
is available for measuring blood pressure
of a human body, E C G
(Electrocardiograph) monitor, SpO2
(Oxygen Saturation in Blood) monitor etc..
158
Multi- Parameter Monitoring
System
 A multi-parameter Patient Monitoring System (PMS) is used for multiple
critical physiological signs of the patient to transmit the vital
information like Electro cardiograph , Respiration Rate, Blood pressure
etc. Therefore, multi parameter PMS has always been occupying a very
significant position in the field of medical devices.
 Most diseases of the heart and of the circulatory system , referred to as
cardiovascular diseases, strike with out warning and prompt treatment is
required .
 Such treatment is best provided in a specialized area of hospital referred
to as “intensive care unit.”(ICU).
 These specialized hospital units provide constant observation of the
subject, constant monitoring of the subject’s physiological condition
and provide immediate emergency treatment whenever it is required.
159
Three Important Intensive Care Units
 Coronary intensive care: units used for treatment of

diseases of the heart such as the heart attacks
 Stroke intensive care: Units used for treatment of
diseases of the circulatory system such as stroke.
 Pulmonary intensive care units: Pulmonary
intensive care unit s are used for treatment
of respiratory diseases.
160
PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS TO BE MONITOR
DURING INTENSIVE CARE UNIT
 Cardiac monitoring
 Hemodynamic monitoring,
 Respiratory monitoring
 Neurological monitoring
 Blood glucose monitoring
 Childbirth monitoring
 Body temperature
161
ECG MONITORING
• The principal physiological signal monitored in an intensive
care unit is often the electrocardiogram. The electrocardiogram
is usually monitored in the lead-II configuration with two active
electrodes.
• These two electrodes are placed approximately 12inches apart
along the maximum potential axis of the subject’s heart.
• A third electrode (ground) should be located elsewhere on the
chest. This electrocardiogram monitoring configuration is
referred to as three-lead chest cluster.
• The electrodes used for E C G monitoring during intensive care
must be suited for long term monitoring applications.
• The set of leads used for monitoring purpose is called
‘rhythm’
• strip and its purpose is just to note the heart beat and not for
analyzing it.
Blood Pressure Monitoring
• The second physiological parameter often of prime importance
in intensive care monitoring is blood pressure.
• Korotkoff system-Riva-Rocci Method
• Blood pressure can be monitored using the automatic cuff pump

and Korotkoff microphone blood- pressure measurement
system this system is occasionally used in intensive care units. ,
• It also possesses the disadvantage of it does not
provide a continuous record of the subject’s blood
pressure.
• Thus, if for some reason the subjects blood pressure were to
suddenly drop, this system may take some minutes or so to
detect this pressure drop.
•
Blood Pressure Monitoring……
• PLETHYSMOGRAPH
• Blood pressure monitoring with plethysmograph

offers the least discomfort to the subject; however, it
provides only a relative indication of the well being
of the circulatory system rather than providing
absolute values for diastolic and systolic pressure.
• Digital blood pressure monitors are now-a-days often

used in many intensive care units. Any intensive care
unit may employ one or more of these techniques
and indeed all three may be available if required.
BLOOD PRESSURE MONITORING
RESPIRATION MONITORING
• It is often desirable to monitor the subject’s

respiratory activity during intensive care ;
• this may be accomplished with
thermistor pneumograph placed in the subject’s
nostril.
• BODY TEMPERATURE
•
• It is often also desirable to monitor body temperature
in intensive care subjects via a rectal or armpit
thermistor probe
CENTRAL NURSE’S STATION
CENTRAL NURSE’S STATION….
• Multi connector cable connects the output form the four

subject- monitoring sites located beside each intensive care bed
to the central nurse’s station.
• Each subject’s ECG is continuously displayed via a four channel

CRT display. And also these signals are being recorded
continuously on a memory loop tape recorder.
• This tape recorder contains the previous one-minute ECG

history for each subject by recording the ECG on a
tape loop“one minute” in length
Present Parameters in Patient
Monitoring System
• ECG 3/5/10 leads
• Respiration
• Invasive Blood Pressure (IBP)
• Non Invasive Blood Pressure(NIBP)
• Pulse Oxy Meter (SpO2)

Non invasive
Blood pressure
PULSE
OXYMETER
ECG
MONITOR
Hemodynamic monitoring
• Cardiac output and flow rate ;
• The heart is the driver of the circulatory system, pumping blood

through rhythmic contraction and relaxation.
• The rate of blood flow out of the heart meaning literally "blood
flow, motion and equilibrium under the action of external
forces", is the study of blood flow or the circulation. It explains
the physical laws that govern the flow of blood in the blood
vessels.
Respiratory monitoring
• Measurement of airway pressure (Paw), flow (F) and volume (Vol)
during mechanical ventilation assists in the differential diagnosis of
respiratory failure. Airway occlusion technique makes possible to
carefully characterize the mechanics of the lung, chest wall, and the
total respiratory monitoring system
• Pulse oximetry ;which involves measurement of the
saturated percentage of oxygen in the blood, referred to as
SpO2, and measured by an infrared finger cuff,
• Capnography ;, which involves CO2 measurements, referred to as
(EtCO2) or end-tidal carbon dioxide concentration. The respiratory
rate monitored as such is called AWRR or (airway respiratory rate).
Neurological monitoring - EEG
• Intracranial pressure. Also, there are special

patient monitors which incorporate the
monitoring of brain waves
• Blood glucose meter ; is an electronic device
for measuring the blood glucose level
• Childbirth; also known as labour, delivery,
birth,
Body temperature monitoring
• Body temperature" redirects here. For
information regarding normal human
body temperature,
Components of Medical monitor
• Sensor
• Translating component
• Display device
• Communication links
• Alarm
Spo2 sensor
Spo2 sensor board
Invasive BP
sensor
ECG sensor
ECG placement
ECG sensor board
Temp sensor
Hospitals may have ICUs that cater to a specific
medical specialty below using all medical monitor
Neonatal intensive care unit (NICU)

Pediatric intensive care unit (PICU)
Psychiatric intensive care unit (PICU)
Coronary care unit (CCU):
Medical intensive care unit (MICU)
Neurological intensive care unit (Neuro ICU)
Trauma intensive care unit (Trauma ICU).
Post-anesthesia care unit (PACU):
Surgical Intensive Care Unit (SICU):
Mobile Intensive Care Unit (MICU)
Use of computers for patient
monitoring
real-time monitoring
Wherever you are – in the hospital, at home, or on the

road – you have access to the patient information you
need to make informed clinical decisions via Web and
iPad access. IntelliVue Information Center iX offers
virtually anywhere, anytime access to key patient
monitoring information.
Use of computers for patient monitoring
Automatic
control
Patient Transducers equipment Computer DBMS
Clinician Display
Reports
Mouse and
keyboard
ICU
Bed Bed Bed Bed
Nurse station
Telemetry
WEB
connection
FUTURE TRENDS IN PATIENT
MONITORINGSYSTEM
• Blood Gas Analyzer
• Drug Dosage calculator
• Drug Management System
• Wearable PMS
• Telemetry / Telemedicine
Patient Safety
 The main objective of any healthcare system should be the safe progress
of the patients through all parts of the system.
 Harm from their care as well as from the environment in which it is
carried out, must be avoided and risk minimized in care delivery
processes.
 Electrical shocks, burns and fire hazards caused by medical
equipment
are one of the highest risks that may harm the patient.
 Electric shock: When the human body comes in contact with the live
wire and an uninsulated electric power, the power flows naturally and
easily through the body and we experience it as an E-shock.
189
Electrical safety
Medical procedures usually expose the patient to more hazards than
the typical home or workplace, because :-
1. In medical environments the skin and mucous membranes are
frequently penetrated or altered.
2. There are many sources of potentially hazardous substances and
energy forms that could injure either the patient or the medical
staff.
These sources of hazards include:-
 fire, air, earth, water, chemicals, drugs, microorganisms
 Waste products
 Sound and electricity
 Natural and unnatural disasters surroundings, gravity,
mechanical stress
 People responsible for acts of omission and operation
Physiological effects of electricity
 For a physiological effect to occur, the psychophysical and physiological effects
body must become part of an electric of electrical current in humans:-
circuit. Current must enter the body at
one point and leave at some other
point
 The magnitude of the current is equal
AWG No. 8 copper wires

to the applied voltage divided by the 70 kg
sum of the series impedances of the
body tissues and the two interfaces at
the entry points
Three phenomena can occur when electric
current flows through biological tissue:
(1) Electric stimulation of excitable tissue
(nerve and muscle)
(2) Resistive heating of tissue
(3) Electrochemical burns and tissue
damage for direct current and
very high voltages
psychophysical and physiological effects of electrical current in humans:-
Threshold of perception = the minimal current that an individual can detect.

This threshold varies considerably among individuals and with the measurement
conditions (wet or dry skin)
Thresholds for dc current range from 2 to 10 mA, and slight warming of the skin is
perceived (realized)
psychophysical and physiological effects of electrical curren
in humans:-
Let-go current:-
Is defined as the maximal current at which the subject can
withdraw voluntarily.
Involuntary contractions of muscles or reflex withdrawals is occur
The minimal threshold for the let-go current is 6 mA
Respiratory paralysis, pain, and fatigue:-
 respiratory arrest has been observed at 18 to 22mA
 Strong involuntary contractions of the muscles and stimulation
of the
nerves can be painful and cause fatigue if there is long
exposure.
Ventricular fibrillation
Ventricular fibrillation:-
Is a rapid and disorganized cardiac rhythm.
If the magnitude of the current is sufficient to excite only part of the
heart muscle and disrupted the heart rate
The heart rate can rise to 300 beats/min
The fibrillation does not stop when the current that triggered it
is removed.
Ventricular fibrillation is the major cause of death due to electric shock.
The threshold for ventricular fibrillation for an average-sized human
varies from about 75 to 400 mA
Normal rhythmic activity returns only if a brief high-current pulse from
a defibrillator is applied to depolarize all the cells of the heart muscle
the cells relax together, a normal rhythm usually returns
Body weight and fibrillation, duration of the current
Several studies using animals of
various sizes have shown that the
fibrillation threshold increases with
body weight
Fibrillating current increases from 50 mA
rms for 6 kg dogs to 130 mA rms for 24
kg dogs.
Types of Shocks
 Gross Shock/Macro Shock: The current flows through the

body of the subject ,e.g. as from arm to arm.
 Micro current Shock: The current passes directly through the
heart wall. This is the case when cardiac catheters may be
present in the heart chambers.
196
Point of entry (macroshock and microshock)
Macroshock:- Microshock:-
When current is applied at two points on All the current applied through an
the surface of the body, only a small intracardiac catheter flows through
fraction of the total current flows the heart
through the heart (macroshock). small currents called microshocks can
The magnitude of current needed to induce Ventricle fibrillation
fibrillate the heart is far greater when Current of about 20 µA can
the current is applied on the surface of cause microshock .
the body than it would be if the current The widely accepted safety limit
were applied directly to the heart to prevent
microshocks is 10 mA.
Distribution of electric power
Electric power is needed in health- Safe distribution of power in health-care
care facilities for :- facilities:-
1. The operation of medical
High voltage (4800 V)
instruments
enters the building—
2. Lighting, maintenance appliances usually via underground
3. Patient conveniences (such as cables
television, hair curlers, and
electric toothbrushes)
4. Clocks, nurse call buttons, and an
endless list of other electric
devices
• So the first step on providing
electrical safety is to control the
availability of electric power and the
grounds in the patients’
environment
Patients’ electrical
 A shock hazardenvironment
exists between the Things must be done:-
two conductors supplying either a 1. All exposed conductive surfaces
240 V or a 120 V appliance. in the vicinity of the patient must
 Because the neutral wire on a 120 V be grounded at a single patient
circuit is connected to ground, a grounding point.
connection between the hot conductor 2. Periodic testing for continuity
and any grounded object poses a between the patient ground and
shock hazard. all grounded surfaces is required
 Microshocks can occur if sufficient 3. Each patient-bed location in
potentials exist between exposed general- care areas must have at
conductive surfaces in the patients’ least four single or two duplex
environment receptacles ,the receptacle must be
THE maximal potentials permitted grounded
between any two exposed conductive 4. At least two branch circuits with
surfaces in the vicinity of the patient are separate automatic overcurrent
specified by the 2006 NEC, Article devices must supply the location
517- 15: of each patient bed.
1. General-care areas, 500 mV 5. For critical-care areas at least six
under normal operation single or three duplex receptacles are
2. Critical-care areas, 40 mV under required for each location of a
normal operation patient bed
Isolated-power systems
Any ground faults can posses hazard .
A ground fault :-
Is a short circuit between the hot
conductor and ground that injects
large currents into the grounding
system.
 Isolation of both conductors from
isolation transformer
ground is commonly achieved with an Measures the total possible resistive and
isolation transformer + line isolation capacitive leakage current (total hazard
monitor current) that would flow through a low
impedance if it were connected between either
isolated conductor and ground.
When the total hazard current exceeds 3.7 to
5.0 mA for normal line voltage, a red light and
an audible alarm are activated
Checking the lines by the LIM can
interfere with (ECG,EEG ,ect.) ,or it can
trigger synchronized defibrillators
Microshock hazards
Leakage currents:-
Small currents (usually on µA) that flow between any adjacent
insulated conductors that are at different potentials
The leakage current in line operated equipment flows through:
1. The stray capacitance between the two conductors.
2. Resistive leakage current flows through insulation, dust, and
moisture.
If the ground wire is broken, then the chassis potential rises above ground,
and a patient who touches the chassis and has a grounded electric
connection to the heart may receive a micro shock
Electrical-safety codes and standards
A code
is a document that contains only mandatory requirements.
A standard
also contains only mandatory requirements, but compliance
tends to be voluntary, and more detailed notes and explanations
are given.
Standards are designed for voluntary use and do not impose
any
regulations.
However, laws and regulations may refer to certain standards
and make compliance with them compulsory.
A manual or guide
is a document that is informative and tutorial but does
not contain requirements
Limits on Leakage Current
Limits on Leakage Current for Electric

Appliances
one fault is applied to the equipment to see

what happens
Basic approaches to protection against
shock  Reliable grounding for equipment
There are two fundamental methods
of protecting patients against shock:-  Reduction of leakage current
1. The patient should be completely  Double-insulated equipment
isolated and insulated from all  Operation at low voltages
grounded objects.  Electrical isolation
2. All sources of electric current and  Isolated heart connections
all conductive surfaces within reach
of the patient can be maintained at
the same potential, which is not  For the power distribution
necessarily ground potential  For the equipment
 In practical neither of these
approaches can be fully achieved so
we used :-
 Grounding system
 Isolated power-distribution system
 Ground-fault circuit interrupters
(GFCI)
Protection: power distribution
The patient equipment grounding
point is connected individually to
all :-
receptacle grounds
Metal beds
Metal door and window
frames Water pipes
Any other conductive surface.
These connections should not
exceed
resistance of 0.15 Ω
The difference in potential between

receptacle grounds and conductive
surfaces should not exceed 40 mV
Chassis leakage current
Chassis leakage current:-
Leakage current emanating from the chassis should not exceed :-
500 mA for appliances with single fault not intended to contact
patients .
300 mA for appliances that are intended for use in the patient
care
vicinity.
These are limits on rms current for sinusoids from dc to 1 kHz,
and they should be obtained with a current-measuring device of
1000 Ω or less
Chassis leakage-current test

Leakage current in patient leads
Limits on leakage current in patient leads should be 50 µA.
Isolated patient leads must have leakage current that is less than 10 µA.
leakage current between any pair of leads or between any single lead and
all the other patient leads should be measured.
Test for leakage current from patient leads to ground

Test for leakage current between patient leads
leakage current between any pair of leads or
between any single lead and all the other
patient leads should be measured
Test for leakage current between patient leads

PACEMAKER
S
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM IN THE
HEART
WHEN DO WE NEED A PACEMAKER
???
• Bradycardia – a condition in which the heart
beats too slowly – less than 60 beats per
minute
• Tachycardia – a condition in which the heart
beats too fast – more than 80 beats per
minute
• Atrial fibrillation – the upper chambers of
the heart beat rapidly
WHAT IS A PACEMAKER
The basic parts :
• Power source
• Pulse generator
• Electrodes

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Course Name: Biomedical Instrumentation Course Code: MC1652: Wednesday, March 30, 2016 1

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Course Name: Biomedical Instrumentation

Course Code: MC1652

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 1

Instrumentation : Instrumentation is the use

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 3

Biomedical Instrumentation : Biomedical

COMPONENT OF MAN INSTRUMENT SYSTEM

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 5

 Treatment of Patients ( Therapeutic use )

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 6

 Some instruments can be used in both areas.

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 7

Data Logging Supplementary

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 9

 Bed – side monitor

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 11

 Flame photo meter

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 12

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 14

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 15

 Aid for blind

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 16

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 18

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 19

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 20

Wednesday, March 30, 2016 22

1. Diathermy, Short wave

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The science of structure of the body is

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Physiology which relates to the normal

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 Human body contains various

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Function of Cardiovascular System

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1) Major vessel from 5 5) The. aorta carries

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Three types of blood vessels

 Veins - move blood toward the heart

 Capillaries - tiny blood vessels that connect arteries and

Function of the blood

White blood cell

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Conduction System of the heart

 This system creates the electrical impulses and sends them

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Did you know that...

Did You Know That...

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is divided into the central

 Brain : a mass of 100 billion neurons located inside the

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Credit: Mark Lythgoe & Chloe Hutton, Wellcome Images

Nerves : visible bundles of

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dendrites nerve endings

motor neurone sensory neurone relay neurone

dendrites nerve endings

But what happens when the signal