Theory of

Structures
BEAM

A beam is a bar subject to forces

or couples that lie in a plane
containing the longitudinal
section of the bar. According to
determinacy, a beam may be
determinate or indeterminate.
CANTILEVER BEAM

A projecting beam
supported at only one end
fixed
SIMPLE BEAM

a beam resisting on simple supports at

both ends which are free to rotate and
have no moment resistance. As with any
statistically determinate structure, the
values of all reactions, shears, and
moments for a simple beam are
independent of its cross sectional shape
and material
OVERHANGING

a simple beam extending beyond

one of its Supports. The
overhanging reduces the Positive
moment at midspan while
developing a negative moment at
the base of the cantllever over the
support
PROPPED BEAM

A propped simply supported

beam is a beam which is
simply supported at one end
and fixed at other end
FIXED END BEAM

a beam having both ends restrained

against translation and rotation. The
fixed ends transfer bending stresses,
increase the rigidity of the beam and
reduce its maximum deflection.
 
 
CONTINUOUS BEAM

a beam extending over more than 2 supports in order to develop greater

rigidity and smaller moments than a series of simple beams having
similar spans and loading, Both fixed end and continuous beams are
indeterminate structures for which the values of all, reactions, shears
and moments are dependent not only on span and loading but also or
cross sectional shape and material
Statically Determinate Beams

Statically determinate beams are those

beams in which the reactions of the supports
may be determined by the use of the
equations of static equilibrium. The beams
shown below are examples of statically
determinate beams.
Statically Indeterminate Beams
If the number of reactions exerted upon a beam
exceeds the number of equations in static
equilibrium, the beam is said to be statically
indeterminate. In order to solve the reactions of
the beam, the static equations must be
supplemented by equations based upon the elastic
deformations of the beam.
 
The degree of indeterminacy is taken as the
difference between the umber of reactions to the
number of equations in static equilibrium that can
be applied. In the case of the propped beam
shown, there are three reactions R1, R2, and M and
only two equations (ΣM = 0 and ΣFv = 0) can be
applied, thus the beam is indeterminate to the first
degree (3 - 2 = 1).
Types of Loading

Loads applied to the beam

may consist of a concentrated
load (load applied at a point),
uniform load, uniformly
varying load, or an applied
couple or moment. These
loads are shown in the
following figures.
Deflection of Beams
The deformation of a beam is usually
expressed in terms of its deflection from its
original unloaded position. The deflection is
measured from the original neutral surface of
the beam to the neutral surface of the
deformed beam. The configuration assumed
by the deformed neutral surface is known as
the elastic curve of the beam.
 
Methods of Determining Beam Deflections
Numerous methods are available for the determination of beam
deflections. These methods include:
1.Double-integration method
2.Area-moment method
3.Strain-energy method (Castigliano's Theorem)
4.Conjugate-beam method
5.Method of superposition
SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS
SHEAR DIAGRAM
a graphic representation of the
variation In magnitude of the
external shears present in structure
for a given set of transverse loads and
support conditions concentrated
loads produce external shears which
are constant In magnitude between
the loads uniformly distributed loads
produce linearly varying shears.
SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS

MOMENT DIAGRAM
a graphic representation of the
variation In magnitude of the bending
moment present in a structure for a
given set of transverse load and
support conditions. The overall
deflected shape of a structure
subject to bending can often be
inferred from the shape of its
moment diagram
POSITIVE SHEAR
A net resultant of shear forces
that acts vertically upward on
the left part of the structure
being considered

NEGATIVE SHEAR
A net resultant of shear forces
that act vertically downward on
the left part of the structure
being considered
POSITIVE MOMENT
A bending moment that produces moment that
produces a concave curvature at a section of a
structure

NEGATIVE MOMENT
A bending moment that produces moment that
produces a convex curvature at a section of a
structure
INFLECTION POINT

a point at which a structure

changes curvature on
convex to concave or vise
versa as it deflects under a
transverse load:
theoretically an internal
hinge and therefore a point
of zero moment
QUESTION:

The flexural stress at the neutral surface of a beam

structure is:

a. zero
b. maximum
c. minimum
d. variable
QUESTION:

The main Bars for Cantilevered Slabs are Located at

a. Top
b. Middle
c. Bottom
d. Anywhere
Camber of Beams
a slight convex curvature
intentionally built into beam,
girder, or truss to compensate for
an anticipated deflection
One Way Slab

One way slab is supported on two opposite

side only thus structural action is only at
one direction.

One way slab is supported by beams in only

2 sides

The ratio of longer span panel (L) to

shorter span panel (B) is equal or greater
than 2. Thus, L/B >= 2

Main reinforcement is provided in only one

direction for one way slabs.
Slab Thickness

Thickness of slab should not be less than

75mm.
Spacing of temperature bars should not be
greater than 5t or 500mm.
If the slab is permanently exposed to the
ground, minimum concrete cover is 75mm
clear.
Main Bars

 
 Main Bars are parallel to the shorter side


 Minimum steel bars = 12mm φ

 Spacing of main bars should not be greater
than 3t nor 450mm and not less than 100mm
 Number of bars needed in one-meter width of
slab:
S = → spacing of main bars
Temperature Bars

Temperature Bars are Parallel to your

longer side
Minimum temperature bars = 10mm φ
Spacing of temperature bars should
not be greater than 5t or 500mm.
Two way Slab
Two way slabs are the slabs that are supported on
four sides and the ratio of longer span (l) to
shorter span (b) is less than 2. In two way slabs,
load will be carried in both the directions. So,
main reinforcement is provided in both direction
for two way slabs.

Two way slab is supported by beams in all four

sides.
The ratio of longer span panel (L) to shorter span
panel (B) is less than 2. Thus, L/B < 2.
Main reinforcement is provided in both the
direction for two way slabs
Column Strip
and
Middle Strip
Flat Slab
a reinforced concrete slab supported
directly by concrete columns without the
use of beams

Uses of column heads:

•increase shear strength of slab
•reduce the moment in the slab by
reducing the clear or effective span

Uses of drop panels:

•increase shear strength of slab
•increase negative moment capacity of
slab
•stiffen the slab and hence reduce
deflection
Waffle Slab

Ribbed floors consisting

of equally spaced ribs
are usually supported
directly by columns.
They are either one-way
spanning systems known
as ribbed slab or a two-
way ribbed system
known as a waffle slab
QUESTION:

In 1905, the American engineer C.A.P. Turner

employed concrete floor slabs without beams that
used diagonal and orthogonal patterns of
reinforcing bars. Today, it is now evolving by
introducing plastic voids or bubbles in slabs. This
new technology drastically decreases the weight of
the slab and allows for 55 feet slab span between
columns without beams. Slab weight. What is this
slab?
QUESTION:

For Flat Slab construction,

when additional loading is
imposed on the slab, why is
there a need to thicken the
section at the column?
Columns
Types of Column
SHORT COLUMN
A column is considered
to be short when the
ratio of its effective
length to its least lateral
dimension does not
exceed 12.

L/r = < 12 

Types of Column

LONG COLUMN

If the ratio of the

effective length to its
least lateral
dimension exceeds 12
L/r > 12
Effective length of Column

It is the distance
between points of
zero moment when
the column is
deflected in its
fundamental elastic
buckling mode.
Footings
Footings
 ISOLATED FOOTING
Isolated footings are most commonly used
footings for Reinforced cement
concrete Columns because it is simple and
most economical. An isolated footing is
used to support a single column. Isolated
footings are independent footings which
are provided for each column. This type of
footing is used when

•Columns are not closely spaced.

•Loads on footings are less.
•The Safe bearing capacity of soil is
generally high.
 COMBINED FOOTING

When two columns are close

together, causing overlap of
adjacent isolated footings
Where soil bearing capacity is
low, causing overlap of adjacent
isolated footings
Proximity of building line or
existing building or sewer,
adjacent to a building column.
STRAP FOOTING

A strap footing is a
component of a building’s
foundation. It is a type of
combined footing, consisting
of two or more column
footings connected by a
concrete beam.
MAT FOOTING

Consists of one footing

usually placed under the
building area. They used
when soil bearing capacity
is low, column loads are
heavy and differential
settlement for single
footings are very large or
much be reduced
TRUSSES
Truss Loading
Method of joints

The free-body diagram of any

joint is a concurrent force
system in which the summation
of moment will be of no help.
Recall that only two equilibrium
equations can be written

ΣFx=0 and ΣFy=0

Method of Joints
Methods of sections

In this method, we will cut the truss

into two sections by passing a
cutting plane through the members
whose internal forces we wish to
determine. This method permits us
to solve directly any member by
analyzing the left or the right
section of the cutting plane.

ΣFh=0, ΣFv=0, and ΣMo=0

Method of Section
Purlins

is any longitudinal,
horizontal, structural
member in a roof
 Sagrod

A tension member used to limit the

deflection of a girt or purlin in the
direction of its weak axis or to limit
the sag in angle bracing.
 Rafter

A rafter is one of a series of sloped

structural members (beams) that
extend from the ridge or hip to the
wall plate,
Fink Truss
The Fink truss was designed by
Albert Fink of Germany in the
1860s. The Appomattox High
Bridge on the Norfolk and
Western Railroad included 21
Fink deck truss spans from
1869 until their replacement in
1886.
Howe Truss

The relatively rare Howe truss, patented

in 1840 by Massachusetts millwright
William Howe, includes vertical members
and diagonals that slope up towards the
center, the opposite of the Pratt truss.
K Truss

A truss in the form of a K due to

the orientation of the vertical
member and two oblique
members in each panel. An
example is the Südbrücke rail
bridge over the River Rhine,
Mainz, Germany