Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J.

Sternberg
Chapter 4

Chapter 4:
Attention and
Consciousness
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

• As you are reading this, there are numerous

sights, sounds and sensations going on
around you – the pressure of your feet
against the floor, the soft warmth of your
shirt, the smell of perfume of your seatmate,
the memory of a conversation you had
earlier with a friend, and the sight of your
teacher’s pretty face.

• How do we manage to experience all of

these sensations and still focus on just one
element of our environment?
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

What is attention?
• Attention refers to
how we actively
process specific
information present
in our environment.
• Attention refers to
engagement in the
perceptual,
cognitive, and motor
activities.
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Main Functions of Attention

1. Signal detection and vigilance
2. Search
3. Selective attention
4. Divided attention
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
• Signal Detection Theory holds that the detection
of a stimulus depends on
1. both the intensity of the stimulus and
2. the physical and psychological state of the
individual."

• Your ability or likelihood to detect some stimulus is affected by

the intensity of the stimulus (e.g., how loud a noise is) and
your physical and psychological state (e.g., how alert you are).
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

• For example, when you walk

to your car that is parked in
an empty parking lot late at
night all by yourself, you
might be much more aware of
noises because the situation
is somewhat threatening (you
are primed and listening
carefully to hear anything and
everything). In this case, you
may hear some slight noises
that you might otherwise not
hear if you were in a different
situation that was not as
threatening.
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

1. Signal Detection & Vigilance

• Signal Detection Theory: Measure
sensitivity to a target’s presence
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Vigilance and SDT

• Vigilance is
attending to stimuli
over time to detect
a target.

• Vigilance
decreases rapidly
over time (fatigue);
misses and false
alarms increase
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

2. Search

Actively searching for a

target

Number of targets and

distracters influence
accuracy

Feature search versus

conjunctive search
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

T1:Feature-Integration Theory (FIT)

• a perceptual and attentional theory that explains
how an individual combines pieces of observable
information about an object in order to form a
complete perception of the object or a target.
• Feature processing is done in parallel (i.e., all at
once, multi-tasking).
• Conjunctive searching requires attention to the
integration or combination of the features
• must be done sequentially (i.e. one after the other)
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
Feature Search Conjunctive
Search
• environment is • a combination of
scanned for one features is scanned
particular feature. for.
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

08/25
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Another Feature Search

Is there a red T in
T T
the display?
T
T T T T
Target is defined by a T
single feature
T T T
According to feature
integration theory, the T T T T
target should “pop out” T
T
No attention required
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Another Conjunction Search

Is there a red T in
the display?
X X T
Target is defined by two
features: shape and color
T X T
T X X
According to FIT, the features T
must be combined and so X X
attention is required T
T T
Need to examine one by one
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Feature Search vs Conjunctive Search

 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

T2:Similarity Theory & Guided

search
• Similarity between targets and distracters is
important, not number of features to be
combined
• More shared features = more difficult to
detect a target
• Guided search theory: All searches
have two phases
• Parallel phase
• Serial stage
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

T2:Similarity Theory & Guided

search
• According to similarity theory, data can be
reinterpreted. In this view, the data are a
result of the fact that as the similarity between
target and distracter stimuli increases, so
does the difficulty in detecting the target
stimuli. Thus, targets that are highly similar
to distracters are relatively hard to detect.
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Try to find the black (filled) circle in panel (e).

 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Try to find the capital letter R in panels (f) and (g) of

Figure 4.5 to get an idea of how highly dissimilar
distracters impede visual search.
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Guided Search Theory

• Guided Search is a model of visual attention that
explains how we find our intended target when
looking in a crowded visual field. Let's say we are at a
market and we get separated from our friend. How do
we ever find him in a sea of distracting look-alikes? 
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Guided Search Theory

According to guided search theory,
•we first process multiple basic features such as color, shape, and
motion simultaneously across a large field. (Parallel Phase)
•We then look for one specific element or combination of basic
features at a time in a smaller area of the visual field. So we might first
scan the sporting event crowd for the color and pattern of our friend's
shirt and then focus on the most promising spots in the crowd to find
his face. (Serial Phase)
•Thus, information from the early stage of processing is used to guide
attention in the later stage and make our visual search more efficient.
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

3. Selectivity of Attention
• “Cocktail party phenomenon”
• How are we able to follow one conversation in the
presence of other conversations?

Cocktail Party Effect describes the ability to focus your hearing

on one specific thing even though noise is all around you. It is
named such because this occurs when you are at a party- you
can focus on the conversation you are having with the person
close to you and can ignore all of the other noise and
conversation going on around you. Your brain helps you
selectively focus on the person you are talking too and 'mutes'
the other conversation, music, and general noise around you.
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Shadowing
• In shadowing, you listen to two different messages. You are
required to repeat back only one of the messages as soon as
possible after you hear it. In other words, you are to follow
one message but ignore the other.
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Theories of Selective
Attention
• Do they have a distinct “filter” for
incoming information?
• If they do, where in the processing of
information does the filter occur (early
or late)?
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Broadbent’s Model

According to one of the earliest theories of attention, we filter information

right after we notice it at the sensory level. Multiple channels of sensory
input reach an attentional filter. Those channels can be distinguished by
their characteristics like loudness, pitch, or accent. The filter permits only
one channel of sensory information to proceed and reach the processes of
perception.
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Late Selection Theory

(Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963)

Stimuli are filtered out only after they have been analyzed for both their
physical properties and their meaning. This later filtering would allow
people to recognize information entering the unattended ear.
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Treisman’s Attenuation
Model

Instead of a filter which barred unattended inputs from ever entering

awareness, it was a process of attenuation. Thus, the attenuation of
unattended stimuli would make it difficult, but not impossible to extract
meaningful content from irrelevant inputs, so long as stimuli still possessed
sufficient "strength" after attenuation to make it through a hierarchical
analysis process.
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

4. Divided Attention
• How many tasks can you do at once?
• e.g., driving and talking, radio, phone...
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Real-Life Dual Task

• Driving and
• Cell phones
• Adjusting music
• Watching the scenery
Almost 80% of crashes and 65% of near-
crashes involved some form of driver
inattention within three seconds of the event
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Capacity Models of Attention

 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Factors that Influence Our

Ability to Pay Attention
• Anxiety
• Arousal
• Task difficulty
• Skills
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

When Attention Fails Us

• ADHD (Attention
Deficit with
Hyperactivity
Disorder) - a disorder
that makes it difficult for
a person to pay
attention and control
impulsive behaviors. He
or she may also be
restless and almost
constantly active
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Change and Inattentional Blindness

• Inattentional blindness is defined as a failure to
notice an unexpected, but fully-visible item when
attention is diverted to other aspects of a
display.Change blindness is the surprising failure
to detect a substantial visual change.
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Spatial Neglect
• Lesion on one side of brain causes
person to ignore half of their visual field
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Habituation & Dishabituation

• Decrease in responsiveness when exposed
to a repeated stimulus
• Smokers vs. non smokers
• Chiming clocks
• Habituation/dishabituation paradigm
• Allows psychologists to test abilities of infants and
animals
• If animal or infant dishabituates to a change, they
can detect the change
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Attention and Chapter 4

Consciousness
• Attention
• Is the means by which we actively process a limited
amount of information from the enormous amount of
information available through our senses, our stored
memories, and our other cognitive processes

• Consciousness
• More directly concerned with awareness – it includes
both the feeling of awareness and the content of
awareness, some of which may be under the focus of
attention
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Preconscious Processing
• Information that is available for
cognitive processing but that currently
lies outside conscious awareness
• Priming

• TOT phenomenon

• Blindsight
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Priming
• Processing of certain stimuli is facilitated by
prior presentation of the same or similar
stimuli

• Sometimes we are aware of the prime

sometimes we are not

• Even when we are not aware of the prime,

the prime will influence the processing of
the target
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Priming
BREAD NURSE CAT

BUTTER DOCTOR DOG

• How quickly do you process the second word?
• Faster if you have been primed with a related word
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Marcel’s Procedure with

Chapter 4

Participants

PALM
XXXX
PINE PALM
PINE

It’s a plant. Umm, it’s a

plant.

Subliminal Condition Conscious Condition

 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Anthony Marcel (1983)

Consciously
Subliminally
Condition  Present
Present
Prime
Prime

Targets: Found faster RT Found faster RT for

PINE or for both target one of two target
WRIST words words, slower RT
for the other target

Interpretation Both meanings Only one meaning

were primed is primed, the other
inhibited
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Priming Can Speed or Slow Processing

• Facilitative priming
• Target stimuli (e.g., BUTTER) are
processed faster if preceded by a related
word (e.g., BREAD)
• Negative priming effect
• Target stimuli (e.g., PINE) is processed
slower if preceded by a word related to
target’s alternate meaning (PALM relating
to hand)
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Tip-of-the-Tongue Experiences
(TOT)
• We try to remember something that is
known to be stored in memory but that
cannot quite be retrieved

• People who can not come up with the

word, but who thought they knew it,
could identify the first letter, indicate the
number of syllables, or approximate the
word’s sounds
 Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Blindsight
• Person cannot consciously see a certain
portion of their visual field but still behave as
if they can see it
• Blindsight is the ability of people who are
cortically blind due to lesions in their striate
cortex, also known as primary visual cortex or
V1, to respond to visual stimuli that they do not
consciously see.
• When forced to guess about a stimulus in the
“blind” region, they correctly guess locations and
orientations of objects at above-chance levels
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4