Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J.

Sternberg
Chapter 4

Chapter 4: Attention and

Consciousness
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Attention Is…
•The concentration of mental energy
that must be used to process incoming
information
– Selective
– Limited
– Both conscious and preconscious
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Main points
•Preconscious: Items that lie outside our
conscious awareness
•Priming, Automatic vs. control process

•Conscious attention
1) Searching – Treisman’s theory
2) Selective Attention – Three theories, Resource account, Stroop
3) Divided Attention – Dual task paradigm
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Priming
BREAD NURSE CAT

BUTTER DOCTOR DOG

•How quickly do you process the

second word?
•Faster if you have been primed with a
related word.
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

NURSE
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

DOCTOR
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Marcel (1983)
Condition Subliminally Consciously
Present Prime Present Prime

Prime PALM PALM

Mask XXXX XXXX

Target PINE OR WRIST PINE OR WRIST

Response Body part or Plant? Body Part or Plant?

Reaction time How fast? How fast?

 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Marcel (1983) Results

Condition Subliminally Consciously Present
Present Prime
Prime
Targets: Found faster RT Found faster RT for
PINE or for both target one of two target
WRIST words words, slower RT
for the other target
Interpretation Both meanings Only one meaning is
were primed primed, the other
inhibited
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Priming Can Speed or Slow Processing

•Facilitative Priming
– Target stimuli (e.g., BUTTER) are
processed faster if preceded by a related
word (e.g., BREAD)

•Priming => Let us know what’s going

on early cognitive processes.
Information processing in unconscious
level
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Controlled vs. Automatic Processing

•Automatic processing
– Requires no conscious control

•Controlled processing
– Requires conscious control
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Is Typing Automatic or
Controlled for You?
•Do you type without thinking where your
fingers are? Are you a search-and-peck
typer?
•If you do type without using attention, what
happens when you think about the letters as
you are typing them?
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Functions of Conscious Attention

• Searching

• Selective Attention

• Divided Attention
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Search
•Actively searching for a target
•Number of targets and distracters
influence accuracy
•Feature search versus conjunctive
search
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Conjunctive vs. Feature Search

L L L L L L L Which box is it easier
L L L L L L L to detect a letter that is
L O L L L L L
different?
L L L L L L L

L L L LThe box on top is a feature

L L L
L L L L L L L search
L L L L T L L
The box on the bottom is a
L L L L L L L
conjunction search
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Treisman’s Feature-Integration Theory

• Individual Feature processing is done in
parallel. Simultaneous processing is done on the
whole display and if feature is present-- we
detect it.
• Conjunctive searching requires attention to the
integration or combination of the features.
Attention to particular combination of features
must be done sequentially to detect presence of
a certain combination.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Another Feature Search

Is there a red T in the
Display? T T T
T T T T
Target is defined by a T
single feature
T T T
According to feature
integration theory the T T T T
Target should “pop out” T
T
No attention required
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Another Conjunction Search

Is there a red T in the
Display? X X T
Target is defined by two
Features: shape and color
T X T
T X T X
According to FIT, the
features must be combined
and so attention is required
X X T
T T
Need to examine one by one
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Selectivity of Attention
•Cocktail Party Problem
– How are we able to follow one
conversation in the presence of other
conversations?
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Cherry’s Shadowing Technique

Attended Ear Unattended Ear
The doctor went to The lawyer
the park to find the defended his client
homeless man. He as the trial began.
was He was able

…..The doctor went to

the park…..

Listen to two different conversations and repeat

one of the messages, may be binaural or dichotic
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Cherry’s Study Results

•Noticed in unattended ear:
– Change in gender
– Familiar name including the subject’s

•Did not notice in unattended ear:

– Changed language
– Changed topic, same speaker
– If speech was played backwards
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Models of Selective Attention

•Do they have a filter?

•Where does the filter occur?

 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Broadbent’s Model

Sensory Sensory Working

Stores Filter Memory

• Only one sensory channel is allowed Long

to proceed Term
• Stimuli filtered at sensory level Memory
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

• Broadbent’s Attentional Theory, also known as the

Filter Theory of Attention, proposes that humans can
only process a limited amount of sensory information at
any given time due to an attentional “bottleneck.”
• Broadbent (1958) proposed that the physical
characteristics of messages are used to select one
message for further processing and that all others are
lost.
• Information from all stimuli presented at any time
enters an unlimited-capacity sensory buffer.
• One of the inputs is then selected based on its physical
characteristics (such as pitch or loudness) for further
processing by being allowed to pass through a filter.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

• The inputs not initially selected by the filter remain

briefly in the sensory buffer store, and if they are
not processed, they decay rapidly. Broadbent
assumed that the filter rejected the unattended
message at an early processing stage.
• According to Broadbent, the meaning of any of the
messages is not taken into account at all by the
filter. All semantic processing is carried out after
the filter has selected the message to pay attention
to. So whichever message(s) are restricted by the
bottleneck (i.e., not selective) is not understood.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Broadbent’s Model Could Not Explain

•Participant’s name gets through
•Participants can shadow meaningful
messages that switches from one ear to
another
•Effects of practice on detecting
information in unattended ear (e.g.,
detect digit in unattended ear for naïve
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Treisman Attenuation Model

• In Treisman's attenuation model, the selective filter
distinguishes between two messages on the basis of their
physical characteristics, such as location, intensity and
pitch.
• The ‘dictionary' in Treisman's model allows for selection
between messages on the basis of content. Certain
information requires a very low threshold in activating
awareness of a stimulus, such as our name in the cocktail
party example.
• The attenuation model therefore proposes that there is a
decrease in the perceived loudness of an unattended
message.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

• This message will usually not be loud enough to reach its

threshold unless it has a very low threshold to begin with
(your name), or there is a general momentary decrease for
all messages. An example of a general momentary
decrease for all messages can be illustrated with the
following example:
You are at the airport, and you are searching for a friend
who just arrived from London. Your friend has a small
frame and dark hair. You will be searching the airport
gate for all individuals who have a small frame and dark
hair, and quickly eliminate all those who do not.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

• Broadbent and Treisman's models proposed

that the selection filter in attention occurs
prior to selection, or pattern recognition
stage.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Treisman Attenuation Model

Attenuation of
Unattended
Sensory Working
Stores Memory

Filter weakens the strength of unattended information.

Arrow colors represent different levels of strength Long
Term
If arrow reaches circle, info will be activated in Memory
working memory
Note some circles are closer due to different thresholds
of information
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

• Later models by Deutsch and Deutsch (1963), and Norman

(1968), attempted to merge growing information regarding
memory and the selection process of attention. These more
recent models claimed that selection occurs after the pattern
recognition stage. In these models attention is equivalent to the
selection stage.
• Deutsch and Deutsch suggested that both channels of
information are recognized but are quickly forgotten unless
they hold personal pertinence to the individual. In shadowing
experiments, the participant is asked to repeat a certain
message, that would create the personal significance needed in
attention. Norman elaborated on Deutsch and Deutsch's model
by suggesting that selection is determined not only by the
pertinence of the sensory input but also the strength of the
input.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Late Selection Theory

Sensory Working
Stores Memory

All stimuli is processed to the level of

Long
meaning; relevance determines further
Term
Processing and action Memory
Deutsch & Deutsch (1963)
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Neisser’s Synthesis Model (1967)

•Preattentive Processes
• These automatic, rapid processes occur in parallel on
physical sensory characteristics They are used to notice
only physical sensory characteristics of the unattended
message. However, they do not discern meaning or
relationships.
– Parallel
– Note physical characteristics
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

•Attentive Processes
• These processes occur after preattentive processes. They
are executed serially and consume time and attentional
resources, such as working memory. They are also used to
observe relationships among features and also synthesize
fragments into a mental representation of an object.
– Controlled processes occur serially
– Occur in working memory
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Inattentional blindness
• The phenomenon of not perceiving a stimulus that might
be literally right in front of you, unless you are paying
attention to it (Mack, 2003; Simons & Ambinder, 2005).
• Mack gives the following everyday example of
inattentional blindness:
Imagine an experienced pilot attempting to land an airplane on a busy
runway. He pays close attention to his display console, carefully
watching the airspeed indicator on his windshield to make sure he
does not stall, yet he never sees that another airplane is blocking his
runway!
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Factors effecting attention

Internal factors
•Motivation - Highly motivated individuals are more able to sustain
attention on relevant tasks. Motivation helps drive the allocation of
attentional resources.
•Arousal - Optimal levels of physiological and mental arousal are
necessary for focused attention. Too much or too little arousal can impair
attention.
•Mood - Being in a positive mood can boost attentional control and focus,
while negative moods can hamper attention and make distractors more
salient.
•Fatigue - Higher levels of mental or physical fatigue reduce a person's
ability to sustain and shift attention effectively. Attentional lapses become
more common.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

• Personality - Some personality traits are linked to

attention skills. Features like conscientiousness and low
neuroticism correlate with better attention regulation.
• Interests - People pay more attention to stimuli that match
their interests and preferences. Individual differences in
interests influence what draws and holds one's attention.
• Cognitive abilities - General intelligence, auditory and
visual processing skills, and working memory capacity all
impact a person's attentional abilities.
• Traits - Individuals differ in inherent attentional traits like
focusing, shifting and dividing attention. Some people are
naturally 'high attenders.'
• Age - Both young children and older adults tend to have
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

External factors
•Stimulus features - Characteristics of the stimuli themselves can
affect how much attention they garner. Things like novelty,
intensity, contrast, movement and salience all command attentional
resources.
•Environmental conditions - Factors in the external environment
like noise levels, thermal conditions, lighting and crowding can
influence a person's ability to concentrate and focus their attention.
•Concurrent tasks - Performing another task at the same time as
the primary task of interest reduces the attentional resources
available. Multi-tasking divides attention and hampers
performance.
•Social surroundings - The presence of other people, and whether
one feels socially included or excluded, can impact attentional
processing and performance on cognitive tasks.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

• Distractions - Any stimuli unrelated to the primary task but

competing for attention can serve as distractors that impair
performance. The more distractors there are, the harder it is to
focus.
• Time constraints - Limited time to complete a task can increase
time pressure and direct attentional resources to task monitoring
rather than primary information processing.
• Practice - Inconsistent or infrequent practice of a task results in
more attention having to be directed toward lower level
processing rather than higher level automatic processing.
• Expertise - Novice performers require more externally directed
attention to explicit task elements, while experts can rely more
on automated schemas requiring less attention.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Stroop Effect
Say the color the words red
are printed in as quickly yellow
as you can
green
blue
Reading interferes with your
red
ability to state the color and
blue
your reaction time is slower yellow
green
rat (control), blue(fastest) blue
How about bloo? red
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Divided Attention (Spelke, Hirst,

and Neisser, 1976)

• How many tasks can you do at once?

– e.g. driving & talking, radio, phone...

• Related to automatic processes

 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

•The ways in which a cognitive processor

allocates cognitive resources to two or
more tasks that are carried out
simultaneously.
•According to one of Posner and Snyder’s
(1975) criteria for automaticity—that
processing not interfere with other
mental activity—taking dictation in this
study might be considered automatic.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

• Attention hypothesis of automatization, which

states that attention is needed during the practice
phase of a task and determines what gets learned
during practice.
• Attention also determines what will be
remembered from the practice.
• Logan et al. (1996) put it this way: “Learning is a
side effect of attending: People will learn about
the things they attend to and they will not learn
much about the things they do not attend to”.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Dual Task Paradigm

•Task 1 may require a verbal response

to an auditory stimulus
•Task 2 may require a participant to
push a button in response to a visual
stimulus.
•Results indicate that responses to the
Task 1 are delayed
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

경고 신호 첫번째글자 두번째글자

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 :음제시
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Real Life Dual Task

•Driving and
– Cell phones
– Adjusting music
– Watching the scenery

•Almost 80 % of crashes and 65 % of

near-crashes involved some form of
driver inattention within three seconds
of the event
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Strayer & Drews (2007)

•Naturalistic Observation of cell phone
use and driver behavior

Failed to Stopped
stop properly
On Cell Phone 82 28
No Cell Phone 352 1286
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Strayer & Drews (2007) Results

• Impact of hands free cell phone
conversations on simulated driving:
– Cell-phone conversation led to
inattentional-blindness
– Even if they looked at an object,
participant did not remember the object
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Sustained Attention
•It refers to our ability to maintain
attention on an object or event for
longer durations. It is also known as
“vigilance”.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Factors Influencing Sustained Attention

•Sensory modality is one of them.

Performance is found to be superior
when the stimuli (called signals) are
auditory than when they are visual.
•Clarity of stimuli is another factor.
Intense and long lasting stimuli
facilitate sustained attention and result
in better performance.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

•Temporal uncertainty is a third factor.

When stimuli appear at regular
intervals of time they are attended
better than when they appear at
irregular intervals.
•Spatial uncertainty is a fourth factor.
Stimuli that appear at a fixed place are
readily attended, whereas those that
appear at random locations are difficult
to attend.
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4