Chapter 2

Energy Depth
Relationships
1
2.1 SPECIFIC ENERGY
The total energy of a channel flow referred to a datu
m is given by Eq. (1.39) as
2
V
H  Z  y cos   
2g
If the datum coincides with the channel bed at the s
ection, the resulting expression is known as specific e
nergy and is denoted by E . Thus
2
V
E  y cos   
2g (2.1)
When cos   1.0 and   1.0 ,
2
V
E  y (2.2)
2g
2
 The concept of specific energy, introduced by Bakh
meteff, is very useful in defining critical depth and in
the analysis of flow problems. It may be noted that w
hile the total energy in a real fluid flow always decrea
ses in the downstream direction, the specific energy i
s constant for a uniform flow and can either decrease
or increase in a varied flow, since the elevation of the
bed of the channel relative to the elevation of the tot
al energy line, determines the specific energy. If the f
rictional resistance of the flow can be neglected, the t
otal energy in non-uniform flow will be constant at all
sections while the specific energy for such flows, how
ever,

3
will be constant only for a horizontal bed channel and
in all other cases the specific energy will vary.
To simplify the expressions it will be assumed, for u
se in all further analysis, that the specific energy is gi
ven by Eq. (2.2) i.e. cos   1.and 0   1.0
.This is with the knowledge that cos  and  can
 
be appended to y and V 2 2 g terms respectively,
without difficulty if warranted.

4
2.2 CRITICAL DEPTH
Constant Discharge Situation
Since the specific energy
V2 Q2
E  y  y
2g 2 gA2 (2.2a)
for a channel of known geometry, E  f  y , Q  .
Keeping Q =constant = Q , the variation of E with
1
y is represented by a cubic parabola (Fig. 2.1). It is
seen that there are two positive roots for the equatio
n of indicating
E that any particular discharge ca
n be passed Q1in a given channel at two depths and still
maintain the same specific energy
E . In Fig. 2.1 the ordinate PP' represents

5
the condition for a specific energy of E1. The depths o
f flow can be either PR  y or PR '  y ' .
1 1
These two possible depths having the same specific e
nergy are known as alternate depths.

6
In Fig.2.1, a line (OS) drawn such that Ey
(i.e. at 45 to the abscissa) is the asymptote of the u
pper limb of the specific-energy curve. It may be noti
ced that the intercept Por
' R' P'represents
R the v
elocity head. Of the two alternate depths, one (
)is  y1
PRsmaller and has a large velocity head while the o
ther ( PR 'alarger
) has y '1 depth and consequently
a smaller velocity head. For a given
Q , as the specific energy is increased the difference
between the two alternate depths increases. On the o
ther hand, if is decreased, theEdifference (
) y '1  y1
will decrease and at a certain value E  Ec ,

7
the two depths will merge with each other (point C i
n Fig. 21). No value for y can be obtained when
E  Ec ,denoting that the flow under the given condi
tions is not possible in this region. The condition of mi
nimum specific energy is known as the critical-flow co
ndition and the corresponding depth yc as t
is known
he critical depth.
At critical depth, the specific energy is minimum. Th
us differentiating Eq.(2.2a) with respect to y
(keeping Q constant) and equating to zero,
dE Q 2 dA
 1 3 0
dy gA dy (2.3)

8
 dA
But  T = top width, i.e. width of the channel at
dy
the water surface.
Designating the critical-flow conditions by the suffix
2
'c' , Q Tc
3
1
gAc (2.4)
or 2 3
Q Ac

g Tc (2.4a)
If an  value other than unity is to be used, Eq. (2
.4) will become  Q 2Tc
3
 1. 0 (2.5)
gAc
9
 Equation (2.4) or (2.5) is the basic equation govern
ing the critical-flow conditions in a channel. It may be
noted that the critical-flow condition is governed solel
y by the channel geometry and discharge (and ).

Other channel properties such as the bed slope and r
oughness do not influence the critical flow condition f
or any given Q of the flow is
. If the Froude number
denned as

F V  gA T  (2.6)
it is easy to see that by using F in Eq. (2.4), at the c
ritical flow y  yc and F  F  1.0.
c
we thus get an important result that the critical flow c
orresponds to the minimum specific energy and at thi
s condition the Froude number of the flow is unity.
10
For a channel with large longitudinal slope  and ha
ving a flow with an energy correction factor of
 , the Froude number F will be defined as
 1 A 
F  V  g cos   (2.6a)
  T 
Referring to Fig. 2.1, considering any specific energ
y other than , (say
Ec ordinate at
PP' E  E1
)the Froude number of the flow corresponding to both
the alternate depths will be different from unity as
y1 or y '1  yc .

11
 At the lower limb, CR of the specific-energy curve, th
e depth y1  y. cAs such, V '1  Vand
c F1  1.0. Th
is region is called the supercritical flow region. In the
upper limb ,CR ' y '1 . As
yc such V '1 and
Vc
F '1  1.0 . This denotes the subcritical flow region.
Discharge as a Variable
In the above section the critical-flow condition was de
rived by keeping the discharge constant. The specific-
energy diagram can be plotted for different discharge
s Q  Q1  constant
( i as in Fig. 2.2. I
=1,2,3...),
n this figure, Q1  Q2 and
Q3 isconstant along
the respective vs plots. E y

12
Consider a section PP ' in this plot. It is seen that for
the ordinate PP ' , E  E  constant. Different curve
Q
1
s give different intercepts. The difference between th
e alternate depths decreases as the value increases.Q
13
It is possible to imagine a value of Q  Qm at a point
C at which the corresponding specific-energy curve
would be just tangential to the ordinate PP ' . The dot
ted line in Fig. 2.2 indicating Q  Qrepresents
m
the
maximum value of discharge that can be passed in th
e channel while maintaining the specific energy at a c
onstant value ( ). Any
E1 specific-energy curve of hi
gher value
Q (i.e. Q ) Q
will
m have no intercept wi
th the ordinate PP'there will be no depth
and hence
at which such a discharge can be passed in the chann
el with the given specific energy. Since by Eq. (2.2a)
Q2
E  y
2gA2
14
 Q  A 2g E  y (2.7)
The condition for maximum-discharge can be obtain
ed by differentiating Eq. (2.7) with respect to and eqy
uating it to zero while keeping =constant.
E
dQ dA gA
Thus 
 2g E  y   0
dy dy 2g E  y
Putting dA and Q
T  2 g  E  y  yields
dy 2
A
QT
 1.0
gA 3 (2.8)
This is same as Eq.(2.4)and hence represent the critic
al-flow conditions.

15
EXAMPLE 2.1 A rectangular channel 2.5m wide has a
specific energy of 1.5m when carrying a discharge of
3
6.48 m s . Calculate the alternate depths and corresp
onding Froude numbers.
Solution
From Eq. (2.2a) 2 2
V Q
E  y  y
2g 2 gB 2 y 2

1.5  y 
 6.48
2


2  9.81 2.5 y  2 2

0.34243
 y
y2
16
Solving this equation by trial and error, the alternate
depths y1 and y2 are obtained as y1  1.296 m and
y2  0.625 m .
V 6.48 0.82756
Froude number F  
gy  2.5 y  9.81 y
32
y
At y1  1.296 m , F  0.561 ;and
1
at y  0.625 m , F  1.675
2 2
The depth y  1.296 m is in the subcritical flow regi
1
on and the depth y  0.625ismthe supercritical flow
region.

17
 3
EXAMPLE 2.2 A flow of 5 .0 m s is passing at a depth
of 1.5 m through a rectangular channel of width 2.5
m. The kinetic energy correction factor α is found to b
e 1.20. what is the specific energy of the flow? what i
s the value of the depth alternate to the existing dept
h if α =1.0 is assumed for the alternate flow ?
Solution
Q 5.0
V1    1.33 m s
A  2.5 1.5

1
V1
2
 1.20 
 1.33
2
 0.1087 m
2g 2  9.81

18
Specific energy
V12
E1  y1  1  1.5  0.1087
2g
 1.6087 m
For the alternate depth y2 ,

y2 
 5.0 
2
 1.6087  sin ce  2  1.0 
2  9.81 2.5 y2 
2

i.e.
0.2039
y2  2
 1.6087
y2
By trial and error y2  0.413 m

19
2.3 CALCULATION OF THE
CRITICAL DEPTH
Using Eq. (2.4), expressions for the critical depth in c
hannels of various geometric shapes can be obtained
as follows:
Rectangular Section
For a rectangular section, A  By and T  B(Fig. 2.4).
Hence by Eq. (2.4)
Q 2Tc Vc2
3
 1
gAc gyc
or
Vc2 1
 yc
2g 2 (2.9)

20
Specific energy at critical depth
Vc2 3
Ec  y c   yc
2g 2 (2.10)
Note that Eq. (2.10) is independent of the width of th
e channel.
Also, if q = discharge per unit width = Q B ,
q2 13
 yc3 q2

i.e.
g yc    (2.11)
 g 
Since A T  y , from Eq. (2.6) the Froude number
for a rectangular channel will be defined as
V (2.12)
F
gy
21
Triangular Channel
For a triangular channel having a side slope of m ho
rizontal: 1 vertical (Fig. 2.4), A and
my 2 .
T (2.4a),
By Eq. 2my
2 3 3 6 2 5
Q A m y m y (2.13)
  c
 c c
Hence
g Tc 2myc 2
15 (2.14)
 2Q 
2
yc   
2 
 gm 

22
 Vc2
The specific energy at critical Ec  yc 
Q2 m 2 yc5 2 g
 yc  2
 yc 
2 gAc 4m 2 yc4
i.e. Ec  1.25 yc (2.15)
It is noted that Eq. (2.15) is independent of the sid
e slope m of the channel. Since A T  y 2the Fr
oude number for a triangular channel is denned by us
ing Eq. (2.6) as
V 2
F
gy (2.16)

23
Circular Channel
Let D be the diameter of a circular channel (Fig. 25)
and 2 be the angle in radians subtended by the w
ater surface at the centre.

24
 A  area of the flow section
 area of the section  area of the triangular portion
1 2 1
 r0 2   2r0 sin      r0 cos    
2 2
1 2

 r0 2  r0 sin 2
2
2

2
D
A  2  sin 2 
8
Top width T  D sin 
and
1  2y 
2  2 cos 1    f  y D
 D
25
Substituting these in Eq. (2.4a) yields
3
D 2

2  8  2 c  sin 2 c  
Q
  (2.17)
g D sin  c
Since explicit solution for yc cannot be obtained from
Eq. (2.17), a non-dimensional representation of Eq.
(2.17) is obtained as
0.044194 2 c  sin 2 c 
32
Q
  f  yc D  (2.18)
gD 5
 sin  c  12

This function is evaluated and is given in Table 2A.1

26
 of Appendix 2A at the end of this chapter as an aid fo
r the estimation of y. c
Since
y
A T  fn( ) , the Froude number for a
D
given Q at any depth y will be
V Q
F   fn y D 
g A T  g  A3 T 

27
Trapezoidal Channel
For a trapezoidal channel having a bottom width of a B
nd side slopes of mhorizontal : 1 vertical (Fig.(2.6))
Area A   B  my  y
and Top width T   B  2my 

28
At the critical flow Q2

A 3
c

 
B  myc yc
3 3

g Tc  B  2myc 
Here also an explicit expression for the critical dept
h is ynot
c possible. The non-dimensional representat
ion of Eq. (2.19) facilitates the solution of
yc by the aid of tables or graphs. Rewriting the right-
hand side of Eq. (2.19) as
3
 myc  3
B 1 
3
 yc
 B  myc  yc   B 
3 3

B  2myc  2myc 
B1  
 B 

29
  3
5

B 1  c  c  3 3
myc
m 1  2 c  where c 
B
2 3
Q m

 1  c   c
3 3

gives gB 5
1  2 c 
Qm 32
 
 1   c   c3 2
32
(2.20)
or gB 52
1  2 c  12

(2.20a)
c
Equation 2.20(a) can easily  c
be evaluated for various v
alue of   1 as vs
and plotted . It may be noted
that if , can2 be3 defined
12 as
Q m 
   5

 gB 
30
 One such plot, shown in Fig. 2.7, is very helpful in q
uick estimation of critical depth and other parameters
related to the critical-flow condition in trapezoidal cha
nnels. Table 2A.2 which gives values of for various

values is useful for
c constructing a plot of vs
 2.7 on
as in Fig.  c a lager scale.
 my 
1  y
Since A T 
 B  my  y 

B 
the Froude
 B  2my  1  2 my 
 B 
number at any depth y is

31
10

32
 V Q A
F   fn  my B 
gA T gA T for a given
discharge Q .
Further the specific energy at critical depth, Ec is a
function of ( m yc B ) and it can be shown that (Pr
oblem 2.7) Ec 1  3  5 c 

yc 2 1  2 c 
where  
myc
c
B

33
2.4 SECTION FACTOR Z
The expression A A T is a function of the depth
y for a given channel geometry and is known as the
section factor Z .
Thus ZA AT (2.22)
At the critical-flow condition, y  yc and
Z c  Ac Ac Tc  Q g (2.23)
As a corollary of Eq. (2.23), if Z is the section fact
or for any depth of flow , then
y
Qc  g Z (2.24)
where Qc represents the discharge that would make t
he depth y critical and is known as the critical disch
arge.

34
2.5 FIRST HYDRAULIC
EXPONENT M
In many computations involving a wide range of dept
hs in a channel, such as in the GVF computations, It i
s convenient to express the variation of with
Z
y in an exponential form.
The ( Z  y )relationship
Z 2  C1 y M (2.25)
Is found to be very advantageous. In this equation C1
= a coefficient and M =an exponent called the first h
ydraulic exponent. It is found that generally Mis a sl
owly-varying function of the aspect ratio for most of t
he channel shapes. The variation of M and   my
for a trapezoidal channel is indicated in Fig. 2.8. B

35
36
 The value of M for a given channel can be determi
ned by preparing a plot of vs y
Zon a log-log scale
. If M between two points (
is constant , ) and
( Z1 , y1 )in this plot, y2 value of
Z 2 the
is determined as
log Z 2 Z1 
M 2
log y2 y1  (2.26)
In Eq.(2.26), instead of Z, a non-dimensionalised Z
value can also be used.
For a trapezoidalchannel,Eq.(220a)represents a non-d
imensionalised value of Z if the suffix ‘c‘ is removed.

37
Hence the slope of  vs my B on a log-log plot,
such as in Fig. 2.7, can be used to obtain the value of
M at any value of  . It may be noted that M for a
trapezoidal channel is a unitque function of my B
and will have a value in the range 3.0 to5.0.
An estimate of M can also be obtained by the relat
ion
y A dT 
M   3T   (2.27)
A T dy 

38
EXAMPLE 2.3 Obtain the value of M for (a) a rectang
ular channel and (b) a triangular channel.
Solution
For a rectangular channel,
A  By, T3  B
and by Eq. (2.25) Z 2  A  B 2 y 3  C y M
1
T
By equating the exponent of y on both sides, M  3.0
For a triangular channel of side slope m horizontal
: 1 vertical, A  my 2 , and
T  2my
3 3 6
by A m y
Z 
2
  C1 y M
T 2my
By equating the exponent of y on both sides, M  5.0
39
2.6 COMPUTATIONS
The problems concerning critical depth involve the foll
owing parameters: geometry of the channel, Q
or
Ec or yc .
EXAMPLE 2.4 Calculate the critical depth and the corr
esponding specific energy for a discharge of
5.0 m 3 s in the following channels:
(a) Rectangular channel, B = 2.0 m
(b) Triangular channel, m = 0.5
(c) Trapezoidal channel, B = 2.0 m, m = 1.5
(d) Circular channel, D = 2.0 m

40
Solution
(a) Rectangular Channel
5.0
qQ B  2.5 m 3 s m
2.0
  2.5 
2 13
 
13
yc  q g  
2
  0.860 m
 9.81 
Ec
Since for a rectangular channel  1.5 , Ec  1.290 m
yc
(b) Triangular Channel 15
 2Q 
2
yc   
2 
From Eq. (2.14)  gm 
41
  2   5
1/ 5
2

 2
 1.828 m
 9.81  0.5 
Ec
Since for a triangular channel  1.25, Ec  2.284 m
yc
(c) Trapezoidal Channel
5.0  1.5
32 32
Qm
   0.51843
9.81   2.0 
52 52
gB
Using Table 2A.2 the corresponding value of
myc
c   0.536
B
yc  0.715 m
Ac   2.0  1.5  0.715  0.715  2.197 m 2

42
 Vc  5.0 2.197  2.276 m s
Vc
2
2 g  0.265 m
Vc2
Ec  y c   0.715  0.264  0.979 m
2g
(d) Circular Channel
Q 5.0
Zc    1.5964
g 9.81
Z c D 2.5  0.2822
From Table 2A.1 showing Z D 2.vs
5
y D , the corres
c
ponding value of by suitable
yc D linear interpolatio
n is y c
 0.537, yc  1.074 m
D 43
 yc Ac
Also, from Table 2A.1 for  0.537, 2  0.4297
D D
Ac   2.0   0.4297  1.7187 m 2
2
Hence

Vc  5.0 1.7187  2.909 m s

V c
2
2 g  0.431 m

Vc2
Ec  y c   1.074  0.431  1.505 m
2g

44
EXAMPLE 2.5 Calculate the bottom width of a channel
3
required to carry a discharge of 15.0 m s as a critical
flow at a depth of 1.2m, if the channel section is (a) r
ectangular and (b) trapezoidal with side slope of 1.5
horizontal : 1 vertical.
Solution
(a) Rectangular Section
The solution here is straightforward
13
q2

yc    i.e. q  gyc3
 g 
q  9.811.2   4.117 m s m
3 3

15.0
B  bottom width   3.643 m
4.117 45
(b) Trapezoidal Channel
The solution in this case id by trial-and-error
Ac   B  1.5 1.2 1.2   B  1.8 1.2
Tc   B  2  1.5 1.2   B  3.6 
2 3
Q Ac

g Tc
 B  1.8 3  1.2 3  15 2
 B  3.6  9.81
 B  1.8  13.273
3

 B  3.6
By trial-and-error
B  2.535 m
46
EXAMLE 2.6 Find the critical depth for a specific energ
y head of 1.5 m in the following channels:
(a) Rectangular channel, B = 2.0 m
(b) Triangular channel, m = 1.5
(c) Trapezoidal channel, B = 2.0 m, m = 1.0
(d) Circular channel, D = 1.5 m
Solution
(a) Rectangular channel

By Eq. (2.10) 3
Ec  yc  1.50 m
2
1.50  2
yc   1.00 m
3
47
(b) Triangular channel
By Eq. (2.15) Ec  1.25 yc  1.50 m
1.50
yc   1.20 m
1.25
(c) Trapezoidal channel
2 2
V Q
Ec  y c  c
 yc  2
2
2 g 2 gAc
Since by Eq. (2.4a) Q  A3 T , E  y  Ac
c c c c
g 2Tc
1.5  yc 
 2.0  yc  yc
2 2.0  2 yc 
Solving by trial and error, y  1.095 m
c

48
(d) Circular channel Ac
Ec  y c 
2Tc
By non-dimension with respect to the diameter D .
yc


Ac D 2


Ec 1.5
  1.0
D 2 Tc D  D 1.5
 
From Table2A.1, values of Ac D 2 and T D for  
 
c
a chosen y D are read and a trial and error proced
c
ure is adopted to solve for . yIt isDfound that
c

yc
 0.69 and yc  0.69 1.50  1.035 m
D
49
2.7 TRANSITIONS
The concepts of specific energy and critical depth are
extremely useful in the analysis of problems connecte
d with transitions. To illustrate the various aspects, a
few simple transitions in rectangular channels are pre
sented here. The principles are nevertheless equally a
pplicable to channels of any shape and other types of
transitions.

50
2.7.1 Channel with a Hump
(a)Subcritical Flow
Consider a horizontal, frictionless rectangular channel
of width B carrying Q at a depth y1 .
Let the flow be subcritical. At a section 2 (Fig. 2.9)
a smooth hump of height Z is built on the floor. Si
nce there are no energy losses between sections 1 a
nd 2, and construction of a hump causes the specific
energy at section 2 to decrease by Zthe sp
. Thus
ecific energies at sections 1 and 2 are given by
V12
E1  y1 
2g
(2.28)
E2  E1  Z
51
 Since the flow is subcritical, the water surface will d
rop due to a decrease in the specific energy. In Fig. 2
.10, the water surface which was at P at section 1 w
ill come down to point Rat section 2. The depth
y will be given by
2 2 2
V Q
E2  y 2  2
 y2 
2g 2 gB 2 y22 (2.29)

52
53
 It is easy to see from Fig. 2.10 that as the value of
Z is increased, the depth at section 2, i.e. y2 , will
decrease. The minimum depth is reached when the p
oint Rcoincides with C, the critical-depth point. At
this point the hump height will be maximum, say=
Z m , y2  yc =critical depth and E2  Ec . The con
dition at isZ given by the relation
m
2
Q
E1  Z m  E2  Ec  yc  (2.30)
2 gB 2 yc2
The question naturally arises as to what happens wh
en Z  Z. mThe upstream depth has to increase t
o cause an increase in the specific energy at section 1
. If this modified depth is represented by
y1 ' ,then
54
 2
Q
E '1  y '1   with E '1  E1 and y '1  y1 (2.31)
2 gB 2 y '12
Recollecting the various sequences, when 0  Z  Z m
the upstream water level remains stationary at y1
while the depth of flow at section 2 decreases with re
yc
aching a minimum value of yat
c Z  Z m
(Fig. 2.11). With further increase in the value of, Z
i.e. for Z  Z m , y1 will change to y '1 while y2
will continue to remain at yc .
The variation of y1 and y2 with Z in the subcritic
al regime can be clearly noticed in Fig. 2.11.

55
(b) Supercritical Flow
If y1 is in the supercritical flow regime, Fig. 2.10 sho
ws that the depth of flow increases due to the reducti
on of specific energy. In Fig. 2.10 point , P'
corresponds to y1 and point R ' to depth at the sectio
n 2. Up to the critical depth, increases
y2 to reach
at yc .Z  Z
m

56
the depth over the hump y2  y1 will remain constan
t and the upstream depth y1
will change. It will decre
ase to have a higher specific energy . E '1
The variation of the depths y1 and y2 with Z in the
supercritical flow is shown in Fig. 2.12.

57
EXAMPLE 2.7 A rectangular channel has a width of 2.
3
0 m and carries a discharge of 4.80 m with s a dept
h of 1.60 m. At a certain section a small, smooth hum
p with a flat top and of height 0.10 m is proposed to
be built. Calculate the likely change in the water surfa
ce. Neglect the energy loss.
Solution
Let the suffixes 1 and 2 refer to the upstream and do
wnstream sections respectively as in Fig. 2.9.
4.8
q  2.40 m 3 s m
2.0
2.40 V12
V1   1.50 m s ,  0.115 m
1.6 2g
58
 F1  V1 gy1  0.391 , hence the upstream flow is su
bcritical and the hump will cause a drop in the water-
surface elevation.
E1  1.60  0.115  1.7515 m
At section 2,
E2  E1  Z  1.715  0.10  1.615 m
  2.4 
13
2

yc   
  0.837 m
 9.81 
Ec  1.5 yc  1.256 m

59
 The minimum specific energy at section 2, Ec 2is les
s than ,Ethe
2 available specific energy at that sectio
n. Hence  ythe
y2and c upstream depth willyrem
1
ain unchanged. The depth y2
is calculated by solving
the specific-energy relation
V22
y2   E2
2g

y2 
 2.4
2
 1.615
i.e.
2  9.81 y2 2

Solving by trial and error, y2  1.481 m

60
EXAMPLE 2.8 In Example 2.7, if the height of the hum
p is 0.5 m, estimate the water surface elevation on th
e hump and at a section upstream of the hump.
Solution
Form Example 2.7 : F1 =0.391, E1 =1.715 m and
yc  yc 2  0.837 m .
Available specific energy at section 2  E2  E1  Z
E2  1.715  0.500  1.215 m
Ec 2  1.5 yc 2  1.256 m
The minimum specific energy at section 2 is greater
than E ,the available specific energy at that section.
Hence, 2the depth at section 2 will be at the critical de
pth. Thus E=2 E=c 2 1.256 m. The upstream depth
will increase
y1 to a depth such that
y '1 the new specifi
c energy at the upstream section 1 is
61
 E '1  Ec 2  Z
V '12
Thus E '1  y '1   Ec 2  Z
2g
q2
y '1  2
 1.256  0.500  1.756
2 gy '1

y '1 
 2.4 2
 1.756
2  9.81 y ' 2
1

0.2936
y '1  2
 1.756
y '1

62
Solving by trial and error and selecting the positive ro
ot which gives y '1  y, 2 y='1 1.648 m.
The nature of the water surface is shown in Fig. 2.13

63
EXAMPLE 2.9 A rectangular channel 2.5 m wide carrie
3
s 6.0 m flow
of s at a depth of 0.5 m. Calculate the
height of a flat topped hump required to be placed at
a section to cause critical flow. The energy loss due to
the obstruction by the hump can be taken as 0.1 time
s the upstream velocity head.
Solution
6.0 2.4
q  2.4 m s m , V1 
3
 4 .8 m s
2.5 0.5
V12 2 g  1.174 m
4.80
F1   2.167, hence the flow is supercritical
9.81 0.5
E1  0.50  1.174  1.674 m
64
Since the critical flow is desired at section 2
  2.4  
2 13

yc     0.837  y2

 9.81 
2 2
Vc yc V2
  0.419 
2g 2 2g
By the energy equation between section 1 and 2,
V22
E1  E L  y2   Z
2g
Where E  energy loss  0.1 V 2 2 g  0.117 m
L 1
Z  height of the hump
Hence 1.674  0.117  0.837  0.419  Z
Z  0.301 m 65
2.7.2 Transition with a Change in
Width
(a) Subcritical Flow in a Width Constriction
Consider a frictionless horizontal channel of width
B1 carrying a discharge Q at a depth y1 as in Fig. 2
.14. At section 2 the channel width has been constric
ted to by a Bsmooth
2
transition. Since there are no
losses involved and since the bed elevations at sectio
ns 1 and 2 are same, the specific energy at section 1
is equal to the specific energy at section 2 .

2 2
V Q
E1  y1  1
 y1 
2g 2 gB12 y12

66
 V22 Q2
E2  y 2   y2 
2g 2 gB22 y22

67
 It is convenient to analysis the flow in terms of the
discharge intensity q  Q B . At section 1, q1  Q B1
and at section 2, q2  Q B2 . Since B2  B1, q2  q1 .
In the specific energy diagram (Fig. 2.15) drawn with
the discharge intensity as the third parameter, point

68
 P on the curve q1 corresponds to depth y1 and spe
cific energy .ESince
1 at section 2, E2  E
and
1
q  q2 , point P will move vertically downward to p
oint R on the curve qto 2 reach the depth y.2
Thus, in subcritical flow the depth y2  y1 .If B2 is m
ade smaller, then qwill
2 increase and ywill
2 decreas
e. The limit of the contracted width B2  B2 m
is obviously reached when corresponding to E , the
discharge intensity q2  qm , i.e. the maximum discha
1

rge intensity for a given specific energy (critical-flow

condition) will prevail 1. At this minimum width,
=critical depth at Section
y2 2,
2
ycm and Q
E1  Ecm  ycm 
2 g ( B2 m ) 2 ycm
2
(2.33)
69
 2
For a rectangular channel, at critical flow yc  Ec
Since E  E 3
1 cm
2 2
y2  ycm  Ecm  E1 (2.34)
13 3 3
 Q2  Q 2
and yc   2  or B2 m  3
B g
 2m  gy cm
27Q 2
i.e. B2 m  3 (2.35)
8 gE1
If B  B , the discharge intensity q will be larger t
2
han 2 qmthe2m
maximum discharge intensity consistent
with E .The flow will not, therefore, be possible with
the given upstream conditions.
1

70
The upstream depth will have to increase to y1' so
Q2
that a new specific energy E '1  y '1 

2 g B12 y '12 
is formed which will just be sufficient to cause critical
flow at section 2. It may be noted that the new critica
l depth at section 2 for a rectangular channel is

71
 13
Q 
 
2
13
yc 2   2   q g2
2
 B2 g 
2
V
and E 'c 2  y c 2 
c2
 1. 5 y c 2
2g
Since B2  B2 m , yc 2 will be larger than ycm . Further
, '  E  1.5 y
E 1 c2 c2
2  B2 m
.BThus even though critical flow prevai
ls for all , the depth at section 2 is not con
stant
y '1 as in the hump
E '1 case but increases as y1 y2
,and
E hence B2 / B1, rises. The variation of , an
d with shown schematically in Fig.216.

72
(b) Supercritical Flow in a Width Constriction
If the upstream depth y1 is in the supercritical flow re
gime, a reduction of the flow width and hence an incr
ease in the discharge intensity cause a rise in depth
y2
. In Fig.2.15, point , corresponds
P' to y1
and point R ' to y2 .

73
Choking
In the case of a channel with a hump, and also in the
case of a width constriction, it is observed that the up
stream water-surface elevation is not affected by the
conditions at section 2 till a critical stage is first achie
ved.
EXAMPLE 2.10 A rectangular channel is 3.5 m wide a
nd conveys a discharge of 15.0 m 3 s at a depth of 2
.0 m. It is proposed to reduce the width of the chann
el at a hydraulic structure. Assuming the transition to
be horizontal and the flow to be frictionless determine
the water surface elevations upstream and downstrea
m of the constriction when the constricted width is
(a) 2.50 m and (b) 2.20 m

74
Solution
Let suffixes l and 2 denote sections upstream and do
wnstream of the transition respectively. Discharge
Q  B1 y1V1
15.0
V1   2.143 m s
3.5  2.0
V1 2.143
F1  Froude number    0.484
gy1 9.81 2.0
The upstream flow is subcritical and the transition will
cause a drop in the water surface.

E1  y1 
V1
2
 2.0 
 2.143
2
 2.234 m
2g 2  9.81

75
Let B2 m = minimum width at section 2 which does no
t cause choking.
Then Ecm  E1  2.234 m
2 2
ycm  Ecm   2.234  1.489 m
3 3
 Q 2

Since ycm   2 
3

 gB2 m 

 15.0
12 12
Q  2
 2

B2 m  3   3
 2.636 m
 gyc 2   9.81 1.489  

76
(a) When B2 =2.50 m
B2  B2 m and hence choking conditions prevail. The d
epth at the section 2  y 2  yc 2.The upstream depth
will increase
y1 to . y '1
15.0
Actual q2   6.0 m3 s m
2.5
2 13
 q2    6.0  
2 13
yc 2        1.542 m
g  9.81 
Ec 2  1.5 yc 2  1.5 1.542  2.3136 m
At the upstream section 1:
E '1  Ec 2  2.3136 with new upstream depth of y '1 s
uch that q  y ' V '  15 3.5  4.2857 m3 s m .
1 1 1
77
 2
V'
Hence y '1  1
 2.3136
2g

y '1 
 4.2857  1
2
 2.3136
2  9.81 y '1 2

0.9362
y '1  2
 2.3136
y '1
Solving by trial and error and selecting a root that giv
es subcritical flow, y '1  2.102 m
(b) when B =2.20 m
2
As B  B choking condition prevail.
2 2m
Depth at section 2 y  y 2 c2
15.0
q2   6.8182 m s m
2

2.20
78
   6.8182 
2 13

yc 2     1.6797
 9.81 
Ec 2  1.5 yc 2  2.5195
At upstream section 1 : New upstream depth= y '1 and
E '1  Ec 2  2.5195 m
q1  V '1 y '1  15 3.5  4.2857 m3 s m
q'12
Hence y '1  2
 2.5195
2 gy '1
y '1 
 4.2857 
2
 2.5195
2  9.81 y '1 2

0.9362
y '1  2
 2.5195 y '1  2.350 m
y '1
79
2.7.3 General Transition
A transition in its general form may have a change of
channel shape, provision of a hump or a depression,
and contraction or expansion of channel width, in an
y combination. In addition, there may be various degr
ees of loss of energy at various components.

3
EXAMPLE 2.11 A discharge of 16.0 m s flows with a
depth of 2.0 m in a rectangular channel 4.0 m wide.
At a downstream section the width is reduced to 3.5
m and the channel bed is raised by Z . Analysis t
he water-surface elevations in the transitions when
(a) Z =0.20m and (b) Z =0.35m.

80
Solution
Let the suffixes 1 and 2 refer to the upstream and
downstream sections respectively.
At the upstream section,
16
V 
1  2.0 m s
4 2
V1 2.0
F1  Froude number    0.452
gy1 9.81 2.0
The upstream flow is subcritical and the transition will
cause a drop in the water surface elevation.
V12 2 g  0.204 m
E1  2.0  0.204  2.204 m
q2  dischange intensity at the downstream section
Q 16.0
   4.571 m 3 s m
B 3.5 81
 yc 2  critical depth corresponding to q2
2 13
 q2    4.571 
2 13
       1.287 m
 g   9.81 
3
Ec 2  yc 2  1.930 m
2
(a) When Z = 0.2 m
E2  available specific energy at section 2
 E1  Z  2.204  0.20  2.004 m  Ec 2
Hence the depth y2  yc 2 and the upstream depth will
remain unchanged at y .
1
V22
y2   Z  E1
2g
82
 y2 
 4.571 2
 2.204  0.20
2  9.81 y 2
2
1.065
y2  2  2.004
y2
Solving by trial and error, y2 = 1.575 m.
Hence when Z = 0.20 m, y1 = 2.00 m and y2 =
1.575 m
(b) When Z = 0.35,
E2  available specific energy at section 2
 2.204  0.350  1.854 m  Ec 2
Hence the contraction will be working under choked c
onditions. The upstream depth must rise to create a h
igher total head. The depth of flow at section 2 will be
critical with y2  yc 2  1.287 m.
If the new upstream depth is y '1

83
 Q2
y '1  2 2
 Ec 2  Z  1.930  0.350
2 gB1 y '1
y '1 
 16
2
 2.28
2  9.81  4.0  y '1
2 2

i.e. 0.8155
y '1  2
 2.280
y '1
By trial-and-error,
The upstream depth will therefore rise by 0.094 m
due to the choked condition at the constriction. Hence
, when =0.35
Z m
y '1  2.094
y2  yc 2  1.287 m

84
PROBLEMS
3
2.3 A rectangular channel 5.0 m wide carries 20 m s
of discharge at depth of 2.0 m. The width beyond
a certain section is to be charged to 3.5 m. If it is
desired to keep the water-surface elevation
unaffected by this change, what modifications are
needed to the bottom elevation?
2.4 Find the alternate depths corresponding to a
specific head of 2.0 m and a discharge of 6.0 m 3 s
B m
in (a) trapezoidal channel,
m = 0.9 m, = 1.0,
(b) triangular channel, = 1.5, (c) circular
D
channel, = 2.50m. (Use the trial and error
method. For Part (c) use Table 2A.1.)
85
2.7 A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6.0 m
and side slope of 1:1. The depth of flow is 1.5 m at
3
a discharge of 15 m s . Determine the specific
energy and alternate depth.
2.18 A triangular channel has an apex angle of 60 
and carries a flow with a velocity of 2.0 m s and
depth of 1.25 m. (a) Is the flow subcritical or
super-critical? (b) What is the critical depth? (c)
what is the specific energy? (d) What is the
alternate depth possible for this specific energy?

86
2.19 Fill the missing data in the following table
connected with critical depth computations in
rectangular channels:

2.20 Fill the missing data in the following table

connected with critical depth computations in
triangular channels:

87