1

NON-UNIFORM FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS; SPECIFIC ENERGY

1. Introduction
 Many examples of open channel flow can be approximated as uniform flow allowing the
Manning equation to be used. Non-uniform flow calculations are needed, however, in some
open channel flow situations, where the flow is clearly non-uniform.
 The concepts of supercritical, subcritical, and critical flow, and calculations related to
those three regimes of flow, are needed for non-uniform open channel flow analysis and
calculations.

2. Specific Energy as an Introduction to Supercritical, Subcritical and Critical Flow

 The parameter, specific energy, can be used to help clarify the meaning of supercritical,
subcritical, and critical flow in an open channel.
 Definition: The definition of specific energy at any cross-section in an open channel is
the sum of the kinetic energy per unit weight of the flowing liquid and the potential energy
relative to the bottom of the channel. Thus, an expression for specific energy is as follows:
V2
E = y + 1
2g
Where: E is the specific energy, y is the depth of flow above the bottom of the channel, V is the
average liquid velocity (= Q/A) , g is the acceleration due to gravity. Another form of the
equation with Q/A in place of V is:
Q2
E = y + 2
2 gA
2
In the case of a wide, open rectangular channel with bottom width b, A = yb, Substituting for A
in equation (2), gives:
Q2
E = y + 3
2 gy 2 b2
q = Q/b, where q is the flow rate per unit width of channel. Substituting in equation (3) gives:
q2
E = y +
2 gy 2
4
 2

Equation (4) gives specific energy, E, as a function of the channel depth, y, for a selected value
of q. The only way this can happen is if the slope of a wide rectangular channel could be changed
with flow rate remaining constant. Manning’s equation ( Q =
1 2/ 3 1/ 2 A by
ARh S o ; Rh = = ≈ y if b ≫ y ) indicates that, on a steep slope, with a given flow
n P 2 y+ b
rate, normal depth of flow, yo will be relatively small in contrast to a larger depth on a flatter
slope. Thus, for a wide rectangular channel with uniform flow (y = yo),

Q 1 1 by o 2 /3 1 /2 1 y 5 /3 s 1 /2
q= = A Rh2 /3 S o1/ 2 = y s = 5
b nb n b o o n o o

For the case of constant q, Equation 4 re-writes as:

2
q
(E – y)y2 = = Constant 6
2g
From this, a graph of E vs y is a parabola with asymptotes (E-y) = 0 (i.e. E = y) and y = 0. This
curve (shown in Fig. 1) is known as a Specific Energy Diagram. Each different value of q will
give a different curve (of course!).

Fig. 1: Specific energy diagram for three constant rates of discharge in a rectangular channel
(Bed slopes greatly exaggerated)
 3

 The graph shows that specific energy has high values for both large and very small
values of y. A close look at equation (4) provides an explanation. The first term in the
equation (potential energy) makes E large as y becomes large. At very low values for y,
the value of E is dominated by the second term in the equation (kinetic energy), which
becomes large because of the small cross-sectional area of flow at small values for y.
 For a particular q, there are two possible values of y for a given value of E. These are
called alternate depths.
 Equation 6 is a cubic equation – three roots, two positive and one, negative, bearing no
physical meaning. The two alternate depths show two different flow regimes – slow /
tranquil and deep on the upper portion of the curve Fig.1, and fast / shooting and shallow
on the lower side of the curve.
 Point C represents the dividing point between the two regimes of flow. At C, for a given
q, the value of E is minimum and the flow at this point is called critical flow. Depth of
flow at that point is called critical depth, yc, and the velocity is called critical velocity,
Vc.
 Any open channel flow having depth of flow less than critical depth ( y < y c ) will be
represented by a point on the lower leg of the graph and is called supercritical flow (Or
shooting / fast flow and shallow).
 Any open channel flow having depth of flow greater than critical depth ( y > y c ) will be
represented by a point on the upper leg of the graph and is called subcritical flow (or
tranquil / slow flow and deep).
 The flow condition with y = yc is critical flow.
 Through a little application of calculus, an equation for the critical depth, yc, can be
derived. The derivative of E with respect to y, dE/dy, must be determined from Equation
(4), set equal to zero and solved for y. This will give an expression for y that gives either
a minimum or maximum value for E. From inspection of the graph of E vs y, we see that
it must be a minimum value for E and that the value of y at that minimum is the critical
depth, yc.

 A relationship for critical depth, yc, in a wide rectangular channel can be found from
equation 4 thus:
 4

2
dE q
=1- 3 =0
dy gy

From which q 2=gy 3

Substituting q = vy gives
V c =¿ gy c
2
and V c = √ gy c 7
[Subscript C denotes critical flow conditions i.e. minimum specific energy for a given q]

 Equation 7 which is applicable to wide rectangular channels, may also be expressed as:

√
2
V c 3 q2
yc= = 8
g g
2
Vc 1
From eq. 7, = yc 9
2g 2

V c2 3
Hence Ec = Emin = yc + = yc 10
g 2
2 2
And yc = E= E 11
3 c 3 min

 Looking at Fig.1 when flow is near critical, a small change in specific energy results in a
large change in depth. Hence, flow at or near critical depth is unstable (resulting in an
undulating water surface). It is therefore undesirable to design channels with slopes near
critical.
 5

Another approach to alternate depths is to solve equation 6 for q and note the variation of q for
changing values of y for a constant value of E. Physically, this situation is encountered when
water flows from a large reservoir of constant surface elevation over a high, frictionless, broad
crested weir provided with a moveable sluice gate near its downstream end (Fig.2).

Fig. 2: Variation of depth y and discharge q per unit width for constant specific energy E
a) Side-view of broad crested weir b) Dimensionless discharge curve
As gate is opened, flow increases until opening jus becomes large enough for critical depth to
occur. With further opening, there is no increase in flow rate. As long as the water impinges on
the gate (Fig.2a), the flow is subcritical (a ’) upstream of the gate, and supercritical (a”)
downstream of the gate.

 Re-writing equation 6:
q = y√ 2 g ( E− y ) 12
This is the equation of the of the dimensionless curve shown as Fig. 2b.
 6

From the curve, it is seen that maximum discharge for a given specific energy occurs
when the depth is between 0.6E and 0.7E. This is established more correctly be differentiating
equation 12 with respect to y and equating the derivative to zero. Thus:

dq 1 y 2
= √ 2 g (√ E− y - ) = 0 from which yc = E 13
dy 2 √ E− y 3
where yc is the critical depth for the given specific energy. Equation is identical to eq. 11.
 Thus, there is a maximum value of q for a given E as indicated by point C on Fig.2b –
curve often referred to as discharge curve.
 The flow depicted by the upper portion of the discharge curve has characteristics like
those for upper portion of Fig.1, and so are the ones for lower portion similar. Point C
represents critical flow conditions.
 Maximum discharge in a wide rectangular channel for a given value of E may be
determined by substituting E from Eq. 13 into eq. 12

qmax = y c √2 g ¿ ¿ = √ gy c3 14

Summary (Wide Rectangular Channels)

 A flow condition can be completely defined by any two of the variables y, q, V, and E,
except the combination q and E, which yields in general two alternate stages of flow.
 For any value of E, there exists a critical depth (eq.11) for which the flow is a maximum
 For any value of q, there exists a critical depth (eq.8) for which specific energy is a
minimum.
 When flow occurs at critical depth, both eqns 7 and 11 are satisfied.
 For any flow condition other than critical, there exists an alternate stage at which the
same flow rate is carried by the same specific energy.
o This alternate depth may be found either from the specific energy diagram (Fig.1)
or the discharge curve (Fig. 2), by extending a vertical line to the alternate limb of
the curve.
o Analytically, this alternate depth is found by solving eq. 4
 7

The Froude Number for Rectangular Channels:

The Froude Number for flow in an open channel is defined as: Fr = V/ √ gy , where V, y, and g
are the average velocity, depth of flow, and acceleration due to gravity, respectively. Fr is a
dimensionless parameter used in a variety of ways with open channel flow. It relates gravity and
inertia forces.
The equation below is obtained by substituting q = Q/b = VA/b = V(yb)/b = Vy, into
equation (5) and simplifying.

V 2/gyc = 1 or V/√ gy c=1 or Frc = 1

This equation shows that the Froude number is equal to one at critical flow conditions.

Knowing that y > yc for subcritical flow, the Froude number must be less than 1 for subcritical
flow.

Similarly, since y < yc for supercritical flow, the Froude number must be greater than one for
supercritical flow. Summarizing:
Fr < 1 for subcritical flow Fr = 1 for critical flow Fr > 1 for supercritical flow
 The depth in a subcritical flow decreases in the downstream direction, while that for
supercritical flow increases. Both move towards the critical condition of Fr = 1.

The Froude Number for Non-rectangular Channels

 The definition for the Froude Number for flow in a channel with non-rectangular cross-
section is Fr = V/[g(A/B)]1/2, where A is the cross-sectional area of flow and B is the surface
width.
 Note that A/B = y for a rectangular channel, so the definition, Fr = V/[g(A/B)] 1/2, reduces
to V/(gy)1/2 for a rectangular channel. This is simply a more general definition for the Froude
Number.
 The criteria noted above for the range of values of Fr for subcritical, supercritical, and
critical flow, apply to flow in non-rectangular channels as well.
 8

Calculation of Critical Slope

The slope that will give critical flow for a given flow rate in a channel of specified size, shape
and Manning Roughness is called the critical slope (S c). The critical slope can be calculated
from the Manning equation with parameters for critical flow conditions as follows:
1
Q= Ac Rhc2 /3 S c 1/ 2 (6)
n
 Q and n will be known, along with channel shape and size parameters.
 Ac & Rhc will be functions of yc; and
 Sc is to be calculated from the equation. The critical depth, yc, must be calculated first to
get values for Ac and Rhc.

A bottom slope less than the critical slope for a given channel is called a mild slope and a slope
greater than critical slope is called a steep slope.