1

EEE 4670 -Electronics Engineering III

Lecture 3: Bipolar Junction Transistors

Dr. Brilliant Habeenzu

Email: brilliant.habeenzu@unza.zm
hakhabeen@gmail.com
 Overview of a BJT operation
A BJT is a semiconductor device consisting of three regions separated by two PN-Junctions. The
central region is called the base. The two outer regions are called emitter and collector. In a
transistor, the function of the emitter is to emit charge carriers in large numbers. Hence, emitter is
usually heavily doped compared to the other two regions. The base passes on the carriers to the
collector. As it is highly desirable that almost all the carriers emitted by the emitter should reach
the collector ,the base is made thin and it is lightly doped. The base acts as a control on the flow
of carriers from emitter to collector.

The function of the collector is to collect

the charge carriers from the base. It is
doped at a medium level. It is made the
largest in size as it must dissipate power.
The N- region contains free
electrons and P-region contains mobile
holes. Thus two types of carriers are
involved in current flow. Therefore these
transistors are called as a bipolar junction
transistor (BJT)

2
Transistor Structure 2
 Formation of depletion layers and potential barriers
There are two PN-Junctions within each transistor. The junction between the emitter and
base regions is known as the emitter-base junction (EB junction) and the junction
between the collector and base regions is known as the collector-base junction (CB
junction).
During the process of formation of junctions, diffusion of majority carriers takes place
and depletion layers and potential barriers are formed.

Vbi Vbi

3
 Energy band structure of an unbiased NPN transistor
The energy band diagram of an unbiased NPN transistor is shown as below. Initially, the
diffusion of majority carriers occurs across the junction. As they move into opposite regions,
energy levels in each region undergo displacement. The energy bands in the N-regions move
down while those in P-region are shifted upward. The displacement of energy bands and carrier
migration come to halt as soon as the Fermi levels in the three regions are equalized.

The process of relative displacement of

energy bands leads to the bending of
bands in the junction regions and creation
of potential barriers of height qVbi. The
qVbi
potential barriers discourage the majority
carrier migration but promote minority
carrier movement. In the equilibrium
condition, the current due to diffusion and
drift of carriers cancel each other. The net
current through each junction is zero.

Energy band diagram of an 4

4
unbiased NPN transistor
 Energy band structure of a biased NPN transistor
The energy band diagram for a biased NPN transistor is shown in the chart. 　 The energy bands
in the N-region are pushed up and those in the P-region are
pulled downwards due to the addition of energy N P N
from the bias. It causes a reduction in the barrier Emitter Base Collector
height by an amount qVBE.. Because of this, a large
number of electrons from emitter can overcome the
conduction hill and go into the base 　 causing a q(Vbi+VCB)
current to flow. Similarly holes from base region can
move into emitter causing hole current. An emitter is
q(Vbi-VBE)
heavily doped , thus electron current is greater than
hole current. The electrons injected into the base due
to forward bias become minority carriers in the base
region. Therefore, they will be in a position to roll
down into the collector region easily. Out of the
electrons injected into base , about 0.5% undergo
recombination by falling into valence band from
conduction band .This recombination causes a small
base current.

5
VCB 5
VBE
 Energy band structure of a biased PNP transistor
The energy band diagram for a biased PNP transistor is shown in the chart. This diagram is
opposite to that for NPN transistor. The energy bands in the N-region are pushed up and those
in the P-region are pulled downwards due to the addition of energy from the bias.

It causes a reduction in the barrier height by an

amount qVBE. Because of this, a large number of VBE VCB
holes from emitter can overcome the hill and go
into the base causing a current. Similarly electrons P N Base
P
from base region can move into emitter. The holes Collector
Emitter
injected into the base due to forward bias become
minority carriers in the base region. Therefore,
they will be 　 in a position to roll up into the
q(Vbi-VBE)
collector region easily. Out of the holes injected
into base , about 0.5% undergo recombination.
This recombination causes a small base current.

q(Vbi+VCB)

6
6
 Transistor operation
The forward bias at the EB junction reduces the potential barrier and leads to diffusion of
majority carriers. The electron current is made much larger than the hole current by doping the
base region more lightly than the emitter region. The sum of the electron and hole current
constitutes the emitter current IE The ratio of the electron current to the total current is known as
emitter injection ratio which is typically of the order of 0.995. Under forward bias, an intense 
injection of electrons into base region occurs and as a result, the electron concentration in the
base region nearer to EB junction steeply rises to a value many times higher than the equilibrium
value as shown in the chart.

Because of reverse bias at the

collector base junction, the electron
concentration in the base region
nearer to CB junction is practically
zero.
Thus, a large concentration gradient
for electrons is established across the
base region.

7
7
Due to a large concentration gradient, a diffusion current flows in the base region. As the base
region is very thin, the path for electron diffusion from EB junction to CB junction will be
shorter than the recombination path from EB junction to the base terminal lead. 　 Because of
this reason, a great majority of the electrons emitted by emitter flow into the collector. It
causes the collector current Ic which is nearly equal to IE . A small base current IB is caused by
the few electrons that undergo recombination in the base.
The ratio of the number of electrons arriving at collector to the number of electrons emitted by
the emitter is called the 　 base transportation factor 　 It is typically of the order of 0.995.
　　 IE=IB + IC 　　
　　 T
α ｄｃ is a DC current gain factor in the common base circuit and typically of the order of 0.99.

　　　  dc  I C I E  T
βdc 　 is called a DC current gain factor in the common emitter circuit. It is from 100 to 300. 　
The relationship between α and β is

Therefore, IC can be controlleddc  IC I B
by IB.
This is the principle of a current amplification of the transistor.

 dc   dc 1   dc 
8
8
 Current gain factor of a BJT
We will define DC current gain factor and current
gain factor in the common emitter circuit. DC
current gain factor is called hFE or β ｄｃ . In the right hfe
chart, hFE is the gradient of line (IC / IB). Current Gradient of
gain factor is called hfe or β. The hfe is the gradient curve
of the curve at the operating point (iC / iB) . Current
gain factor of a common base is called α.

iC iC
 
iE iB
The relationship hFE
between α and β is
 Gradient
βdc
shown as

If α is 0.99,
becomes 99.
β
1
9
Current gain factor of a BJT

10
10
 Structure of a BJT

E B C
Depletion Depletion
region region

Distribution of electron and hole concentration in

the equilibrium condition (external Voltage is zero)

nN  N d
Carrier concentration

nN  N d
pP  N a
N N region
region P region Collector
Emitter Base
n,p

nPO
p NO p NO
11
 Distribution of electron concentration
in the standard bias (base width is large)
This doesn’t work as a transistor,

N region N region
P region
Emitter Collector
Base

nN  N d
Carrier concentration

nN  N d qV
nPO  e kT
(V  VBE )

qV
n

nPO  e kT
(V  VBC )
nPO

Depletion Depletion Distance x

region region
12
 Distribution of electron concentration
in the standard bias (base width is small)
N region P region N region
Emitter Base Collector
Carrier concentration

nN  N d nN  N d
qVBE
nPO  e kT

qVBC qVCB

nPO  e kT
 nPO  e kT
n

Collector
current Depletion Depletion Distance X
region region
qVBE qVCB qVBE
 qVBE
nPO  (e kT
e kT
) nPO  e kT
I E  I C  AqDn  AqDn  IS  e kT
W W 13
Terminals & Operations

14
14
Operation mode Mode

15
15
 BJT in active mode

• Operation
• Forward bias of EBJ injects electrons from emitter into base (small
number of holes injected from base into emitter)
• Most electrons shoot through the base into the collector across the
reverse bias junction (think about band diagram)
• Some electrons recombine with majority carriers in P-type base
16
region 16
Circuit symbols

17
17
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) structure
The physical basis of BJT operation are
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　 Injection, Diffusion, and Collection.
A typical bipolar transistor structure is shown as below.
It consists of a P-type central region, called the base, which is sandwiched between two N-
type regions, called the emitter and the collector. This arrangement is known as an NPN
transistor. It is also possible to construct a complementary form, the PNP transistor, by using
P-type material for the emitter and collector regions and N-type material for the base. In
either case, the bipolar transistor consists of two PN Junctions that share a common region,
the base, between them.

18
18
 I-V characteristics of a BJT
qVBE
IC  I S e kT
IC
IC VBE3

VCE VBE2
VBE
VBE1
VBE3 > VBE2 > VBE1

VCE

• IC vs. VCE shows the BJT looks like a current source (ideally)
• Plot only shows values where BCJ is reverse biased and so BJT in
active region
• However, real BJTs have non-ideal effects

19
19
 I-V characteristics of a BJT

Base Characteristics Collector Characteristics

Base-emitter junction looks Collector-emitter is a family of

like a forward biased diode curves which are a function of
base current. 20
20
 Early effect
Saturation region
Active region VBE3
qVBE
 VCE 
IC  I S e kT 1  
 VA  VBE2

VBE1

-VA VCE

• Early effect
• Current in active region depends (slightly) on vCE
• VA is a parameter for the BJT (50 to 100) and called the Early voltage
• Due to a decrease in effective base width W as reverse bias increases
• Account for Early effect with additional term in collector current equation
• Nonzero slope means the output resistance is NOT infinite.
21
21
 Early effect
• What causes the Early effect?
• Increasing VCB causes depletion region of CBJ to grow and so
the effective base width decreases (base-width modulation)
• Shorter effective base width  higher dn/dx

EBJ CBJ
np(0)
dn/dx
VCB > VCB

Wbase

dn p ( x)  n p (0) 
I n  AqDn  AqDn    22
dx  W  22
Circuit configuration of a BJT amplifier

23
23
BJT Biasing

24
 Operating point (Q point)
The term biasing is an all-inclusive term for the application of DC voltage to establish a fixed
level of current and voltage. The resulting DC current and voltage establish an operating
point on the characteristics that define the region that will be employed for amplification of
the applies signal. Because the operating point is a fixed point on the characteristics, it is also
called the quiescent point (Q point) . The fig. shows a general output device characteristic
with four operating points indicated.

The maximum ratings are indicated on the

characteristics. The BJT device could be biased
to operate outside these maximum limits, but the
result of such operation would be either a
considerable shortening of the lifetime or
destruction of the device. If no bias were used ,
the device would be completely off. Resulting in
a Q-point at A – namely, zero current through the
device. At point C and D, the peak to peak value
would be limited. The point B is the best point.

25
 Biasing of
Common Emitter Configuration

26
 Fixed-bias configuration
The fixed-bias circuit is shown below For the DC analysis, the network can be isolated
from the indicated AC levels by replacing the capacitors with an open-circuit equivalent.
Because the reactance of a capacitor for DC is
X C  1 2fC  1 2 (0)C   

27
 Base-Emitter Loop
Writing Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) in the clockwise direction for the loop, we
obtain
 VCC  I B RB  VBE  0

VCC  VBE
IB 
RB
Because the supply voltage VCC and the
base-emitter voltage VBE are constants, the
selection of a base resistor RB sets the level
of base current for the operating point.

28
 Collector-Emitter Loop
The magnitude of the collector current is related directly to IB through

I C  I B
IB is controlled by the level of RB and IC is related to IB by a constant β, the magnitude of IC is not
a function of the resistance RC. Changing RC to any level will not affect the level of IB or IC.
However, the level of RC will determine the magnitude of VCE, which is an important parameter.

Applying KVL in the clockwise direction around the

indicated closed loop of Fig. results in the following:

VCE  I C RC  VCC  0

VCE  VCC  I C RC
29
Bipolar Junction Transistor
(BJT)

30
 Overview of a BJT operation
A BJT is a semiconductor device consisting of three regions separated by two PN-Junctions. The
central region is called the base. The two outer regions are called emitter and collector. In a
transistor, the function of the emitter is to emit charge carriers in large numbers. Hence, emitter is
usually heavily doped compared to the other two regions. The base passes on the carriers to the
collector. As it is highly desirable that almost all the carriers emitted by the emitter should reach
the collector ,the base is made thin and it is lightly doped. The base acts as a control on the flow
of carriers from emitter to collector.

The function of the collector is to collect

the charge carriers from the base. It is
doped at a medium level. It is made the
largest in size as it must dissipate power.
The N- region contains free
electrons and P-region contains mobile
holes. Thus two types of carriers are
involved in current flow. Therefore these
transistors are called as a bipolar junction
transistor (BJT)

31
Transistor Structure 31
 Formation of depletion layers and potential barriers
There are two PN-Junctions within each transistor. The junction between the emitter and
base regions is known as the emitter-base junction (EB junction) and the junction
between the collector and base regions is known as the collector-base junction (CB
junction).
During the process of formation of junctions, diffusion of majority carriers takes place
and depletion layers and potential barriers are formed.

Vbi Vbi

32
 Energy band structure of an unbiased NPN transistor
The energy band diagram of an unbiased NPN transistor is shown as below. Initially, the
diffusion of majority carriers occurs across the junction. As they move into opposite regions,
energy levels in each region undergo displacement. The energy bands in the N-regions move
down while those in P-region are shifted upward. The displacement of energy bands and carrier
migration come to halt as soon as the Fermi levels in the three regions are equalized.

The process of relative displacement of

energy bands leads to the bending of
bands in the junction regions and creation
of potential barriers of height qVbi. The
qVbi
potential barriers discourage the majority
carrier migration but promote minority
carrier movement. In the equilibrium
condition, the current due to diffusion and
drift of carriers cancel each other. The net
current through each junction is zero.

Energy band diagram of an 33

33
unbiased NPN transistor
 Energy band structure of a biased NPN transistor
The energy band diagram for a biased NPN transistor is shown in the chart. 　 The energy bands
in the N-region are pushed up and those in the P-region are
pulled downwards due to the addition of energy N P N
from the bias. It causes a reduction in the barrier Emitter Base Collector
height by an amount qVBE.. Because of this, a large
number of electrons from emitter can overcome the
conduction hill and go into the base 　 causing a q(Vbi+VCB)
current to flow. Similarly holes from base region can
move into emitter causing hole current. An emitter is
q(Vbi-VBE)
heavily doped , thus electron current is greater than
hole current. The electrons injected into the base due
to forward bias become minority carriers in the base
region. Therefore, they will be in a position to roll
down into the collector region easily. Out of the
electrons injected into base , about 0.5% undergo
recombination by falling into valence band from
conduction band .This recombination causes a small
base current.

34
VCB 34
VBE
 Energy band structure of a biased PNP transistor
The energy band diagram for a biased PNP transistor is shown in the chart. This diagram is
opposite to that for NPN transistor. The energy bands in the N-region are pushed up and those
in the P-region are pulled downwards due to the addition of energy from the bias.

It causes a reduction in the barrier height by an

amount qVBE. Because of this, a large number of VBE VCB
holes from emitter can overcome the hill and go
into the base causing a current. Similarly electrons P N Base
P
from base region can move into emitter. The holes Collector
Emitter
injected into the base due to forward bias become
minority carriers in the base region. Therefore,
they will be 　 in a position to roll up into the
q(Vbi-VBE)
collector region easily. Out of the holes injected
into base , about 0.5% undergo recombination.
This recombination causes a small base current.

q(Vbi+VCB)

35
35
 Transistor operation
The forward bias at the EB junction reduces the potential barrier and leads to diffusion of
majority carriers. The electron current is made much larger than the hole current by doping the
base region more lightly than the emitter region. The sum of the electron and hole current
constitutes the emitter current IE The ratio of the electron current to the total current is known as
emitter injection ratio which is typically of the order of 0.995. Under forward bias, an intense 
injection of electrons into base region occurs and as a result, the electron concentration in the
base region nearer to EB junction steeply rises to a value many times higher than the equilibrium
value as shown in the chart.

Because of reverse bias at the

collector base junction, the electron
concentration in the base region
nearer to CB junction is practically
zero.
Thus, a large concentration gradient
for electrons is established across the
base region.

36
36
Due to a large concentration gradient, a diffusion current flows in the base region. As the base
region is very thin, the path for electron diffusion from EB junction to CB junction will be
shorter than the recombination path from EB junction to the base terminal lead. 　 Because of
this reason, a great majority of the electrons emitted by emitter flow into the collector. It
causes the collector current Ic which is nearly equal to IE . A small base current IB is caused by
the few electrons that undergo recombination in the base.
The ratio of the number of electrons arriving at collector to the number of electrons emitted by
the emitter is called the 　 base transportation factor 　 It is typically of the order of 0.995.
　　 IE=IB + IC 　　
　　 T
α ｄｃ is a DC current gain factor in the common base circuit and typically of the order of 0.99.

　　　  dc  I C I E  T
βdc 　 is called a DC current gain factor in the common emitter circuit. It is from 100 to 300. 　
The relationship between α and β is

Therefore, IC can be controlleddc  IC I B
by IB.
This is the principle of a current amplification of the transistor.

 dc   dc 1   dc 
37
37
 Current gain factor of a BJT
We will define DC current gain factor and current
gain factor in the common emitter circuit. DC
current gain factor is called hFE or β ｄｃ . In the right hfe
chart, hFE is the gradient of line (IC / IB). Current Gradient of
gain factor is called hfe or β. The hfe is the gradient curve
of the curve at the operating point (iC / iB) . Current
gain factor of a common base is called α.

iC iC
 
iE iB
The relationship hFE
between α and β is
 Gradient
βdc
shown as

If α is 0.99,
becomes 99.
β
1
38
Current gain factor of a BJT

39
39
 Structure of a BJT

E B C
Depletion Depletion
region region

Distribution of electron and hole concentration in

the equilibrium condition (external Voltage is zero)

nN  N d
Carrier concentration

nN  N d
pP  N a
N N region
region P region Collector
Emitter Base
n,p

nPO
p NO p NO
40
 Distribution of electron concentration
in the standard bias (base width is large)
This doesn’t work as a transistor,

N region N region
P region
Emitter Collector
Base

nN  N d
Carrier concentration

nN  N d qV
nPO  e kT
(V  VBE )

qV
n

nPO  e kT
(V  VBC )
nPO

Depletion Depletion Distance x

region region
41
 Distribution of electron concentration
in the standard bias (base width is small)
N region P region N region
Emitter Base Collector
Carrier concentration

nN  N d nN  N d
qVBE
nPO  e kT

qVBC qVCB

nPO  e kT
 nPO  e kT
n

Collector
current Depletion Depletion Distance X
region region
qVBE qVCB qVBE
 qVBE
nPO  (e kT
e kT
) nPO  e kT
I E  I C  AqDn  AqDn  IS  e kT
W W 42
Terminals & Operations

43
43
Operation mode Mode

44
44
 BJT in active mode

• Operation
• Forward bias of EBJ injects electrons from emitter into base (small
number of holes injected from base into emitter)
• Most electrons shoot through the base into the collector across the
reverse bias junction (think about band diagram)
• Some electrons recombine with majority carriers in P-type base
45
region 45
Circuit symbols

46
46
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) structure
The physical basis of BJT operation are
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　 Injection, Diffusion, and Collection.
A typical bipolar transistor structure is shown as below.
It consists of a P-type central region, called the base, which is sandwiched between two N-
type regions, called the emitter and the collector. This arrangement is known as an NPN
transistor. It is also possible to construct a complementary form, the PNP transistor, by using
P-type material for the emitter and collector regions and N-type material for the base. In
either case, the bipolar transistor consists of two PN Junctions that share a common region,
the base, between them.

47
47
 I-V characteristics of a BJT
qVBE
IC  I S e kT
IC
IC VBE3

VCE VBE2
VBE
VBE1
VBE3 > VBE2 > VBE1

VCE

• IC vs. VCE shows the BJT looks like a current source (ideally)
• Plot only shows values where BCJ is reverse biased and so BJT in
active region
• However, real BJTs have non-ideal effects

48
48
 I-V characteristics of a BJT

Base Characteristics Collector Characteristics

Base-emitter junction looks Collector-emitter is a family of

like a forward biased diode curves which are a function of
base current. 49
49
 Early effect
Saturation region
Active region VBE3
qVBE
 VCE 
IC  I S e kT 1  
 VA  VBE2

VBE1

-VA VCE

• Early effect
• Current in active region depends (slightly) on vCE
• VA is a parameter for the BJT (50 to 100) and called the Early voltage
• Due to a decrease in effective base width W as reverse bias increases
• Account for Early effect with additional term in collector current equation
• Nonzero slope means the output resistance is NOT infinite.
50
50
 Early effect
• What causes the Early effect?
• Increasing VCB causes depletion region of CBJ to grow and so
the effective base width decreases (base-width modulation)
• Shorter effective base width  higher dn/dx

EBJ CBJ
np(0)
dn/dx
VCB > VCB

Wbase

dn p ( x)  n p (0) 
I n  AqDn  AqDn    51
dx  W  51
Circuit configuration of a BJT amplifier

52
52
BJT Biasing

53
 Operating point (Q point)
The term biasing is an all-inclusive term for the application of DC voltage to establish a fixed
level of current and voltage. The resulting DC current and voltage establish an operating
point on the characteristics that define the region that will be employed for amplification of
the applies signal. Because the operating point is a fixed point on the characteristics, it is also
called the quiescent point (Q point) . The fig. shows a general output device characteristic
with four operating points indicated.

The maximum ratings are indicated on the

characteristics. The BJT device could be biased
to operate outside these maximum limits, but the
result of such operation would be either a
considerable shortening of the lifetime or
destruction of the device. If no bias were used ,
the device would be completely off. Resulting in
a Q-point at A – namely, zero current through the
device. At point C and D, the peak to peak value
would be limited. The point B is the best point.

54
 Biasing of
Common Emitter Configuration

55
 Fixed-bias configuration
The fixed-bias circuit is shown below For the DC analysis, the network can be isolated
from the indicated AC levels by replacing the capacitors with an open-circuit equivalent.
Because the reactance of a capacitor for DC is
X C  1 2fC  1 2 (0)C   

56
 Base-Emitter Loop
Writing Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) in the clockwise direction for the loop, we
obtain
 VCC  I B RB  VBE  0

VCC  VBE
IB 
RB
Because the supply voltage VCC and the
base-emitter voltage VBE are constants, the
selection of a base resistor RB sets the level
of base current for the operating point.

57
 Collector-Emitter Loop
The magnitude of the collector current is related directly to IB through

I C  I B
IB is controlled by the level of RB and IC is related to IB by a constant β, the magnitude of IC is not
a function of the resistance RC. Changing RC to any level will not affect the level of IB or IC.
However, the level of RC will determine the magnitude of VCE, which is an important parameter.

Applying KVL in the clockwise direction around the

indicated closed loop of Fig. results in the following:

VCE  I C RC  VCC  0

VCE  VCC  I C RC
58
Example:
Determine the following for the fixed-bias configuration of Fig.
a. IBQ and ICQ
b. VCEQ
c. VB and VC
d. VBC

59
Solution:
VCC  VBE 12V  0.7V
a. I BQ    47.1A
RB 240k
I CQ   I BQ  (50)( 47.1A)  2.35mA

b. VCEQ  VCC -I C RC  12V-( 2.35mA)( 2.2k)  6.83V

c. VB  VBE  0.7V
VC  VCE  6.83V

d. VBC  VB  VC  0.7V  6.83V  6.13V

60
 Load-Line analysis
The network of Fig. establishes an output equation that relates the variables IC and VCE in
the following manner:

VCE  VCC  I C RC
We superimpose the straight line defined by above equation on the characteristics.
The straight line is defined by the following two points.

VCE  VCC I C  0 mA

VCC
IC 
RC VCE  0V

This line is called the load line because

it is defined by load resistor RC.

61
Load-Line analysis

If the level of IB is changed by

varying the value of RB, the
Q-point moves up or down the
load line as shown in Fig.

If the value of RC increased, the

load line will shift as shown in
Fig.

62
Example:
Given the load line of Fig. and the defined Q-point, determine the required values of
VCC,RC and RB for a fixed-bias configuration

63
Solution:
VCE  VCC  20V at I C  0mA
VCC
IC  at VCE  0V
RC
VCC 20V
and RC    2k
I C 10mA
VCC  VBE
IB 
RB
VCC  VBE 20V  0.7V
and RB    772k
IB 25A

64
 Transistor saturation
When the transistor is operating in the saturation, current through the transistor is at its
maximum possible value.

VCC
I Csa t 
RC

65
Example: The transistor below is specified to have a β in the range of 50 to 150.
Find the value of RB that results in saturation with an overdrive factor of at least 10.
VCEsat=0.2V

Solution :
VC  VCE  0.2V
 10  0.2
I Csat   9.8mA
1
I Csat 9.8
IB    0.196mA
 min 50
I B  10  0.196  1.96mA
5  0.7
 1.96
RB
4.3
RB   2.2kΩ
1.96 66
 Emitter-Bias configuration

The DC bias network contains an emitter resistor to improve the

stability level over that of the fixed-bias configuration.

67
 Base-Emitter loop
Writing the KVL around the indicated loop in the clockwise direction results in the
following equation:

 VCC  I B RB  VBE  I E RE  0

VCC  I B RB  VBE  (   1) I B RE  0

I B ( RB  (   1) RE )  VCC  VBE

VCC  VBE
IB 
RB  (   1) RE

68
 Collector-Emitter loop
Writing KVL for the indicated loop in the clockwise direction results in:

 I E RE  VCE  I C RC  VCC  0

VCE  VCC  I C ( RC  RE )

VE  I E RE

VC  VCE  VE

VC  VCC  I C RC

VB  VBE  VE
69
Example:
For the emitter-bias network of Fig., determine:
a. IB
b. IC
c. VCE
d. VC
e. VE
f. VB
g. VBC

70
Solution:
V CCVBE 20V  0.7V
a. I B    40.1A
RB  (   1) RE 430k  (51)(1k)
b. I C  I B  (50)( 40.1A)  2.01mA
c. VCE  VCC  I C ( RC  RE )  20V  (2.01mA)( 2k  1k)  13.97V
d. VC  VCC  I C RC  20V  (2.01mA)( 2k)  15.98V
e. VE  VC  VCE  15.98V  13.97V  2.01V
or VE  I E RE  I C RE  (2.01mA)(1k)  2.01V
f. VB  VBE  VE  0.7V  2.01V  2.71V
g. VBC  VB  VC  2.71V  15.98V  13.27V (reverse - biased as required)

71
 Saturation level
The collector saturation level or maximum collector current for an emitter-bias design
can be determined using the same approach applied to the fixed-bias configuration.
Apply a short circuit between the collector-emitter as shown in Fig. 　 The resulting
collector saturation current is

VCC
I Csa t 
RC  RE

72
 Load-Line analysis
The collector-emitter loop equation that defines the load line is

VCE  VCC  I C ( RC  RE )

VCE  VCC I C  0 mA

VCC
IC 
RC  RE VCE  0V

73
Example:
a. Draw thee load line for the network on the characteristics for the transistor.
b. For a Q-point at the intersection of the load line with a base current of 15μA, find the
values of ICQ and VCEQ
c. Determine the DC β at the Q-point.
d. Using the β for the network determined in part C, calculate the required value of RB and
suggest a possible standard value.

74
 a. Two points on the characteri stics are required to draw the load line :
Solution:
VCC 18V
At VCE  0V : I C    5.45mA
RC  RE 2.2k  1.1k
At I C  0mA : VCE  VCC  18V
The resulting load line appears in Fig.
b. From the characteri stics, we find
VCEQ  7.5V , I CQ  3.3mA
I CQ 3.3mA
c. The resulting DC  is :     220
I BQ 15A
VCC  VBE
d. I B  15A 
RB  (   1) RE
18V  0.7V

RB  ( 220  1)(1.1k)
The result is : RB  910k

75
 Voltage-divider bias configuration
In the previous bias configuration the bias current ICQ and voltage VCEQ were a function of
the current gain factor β of the transistor. However β is temperature sensitive, and actual
value of β varies. It would be desirable to develop a bias circuit that is less dependent on
the transistor β.
The voltage-divider bias configuration is such a network.
The sensitivity to changes in β is quite small.

There are two methods that can be

applied to analyze the voltage-
divider configuration
Exact analysis and approximate
analysis.

76
 Exact analysis
For the DC analysis the network can be redrawn as shown in Fig.
The input side of the network can be redrawn as shown in Fig. The Thevenin equivalent
network for the network to the left of the base terminal can be found in the following manner:

The voltage source is replaced by a short-circuit.

R2
RTh  R1 // R2 ETh  VCC
R1  R2
ETh  VBE The' venin
IB  I C  I B
RTh  (   1) RE

VCE  VCC  I C ( RC  RE )
77
Example
Determine the DC bias voltage VCE and the current IC for the voltage-divider
configuration of fig.

78
Solution:

(39k)(3.9k)
RTh  R1 // R2   3.55k
39k  3.9k
VCC R2 (22V )(3.9k)
ETh    2V
R1  R2 39k  3.9k
ETh  VBE 2V  0.7V
IB    8.38A
R Th  (   1) RE 3.55k  (101)(1.5k)
I C   I B  (100)(8.38A)  0.84mA
VCE  VCC  I C ( RC  RE )  22V  (0.84mA)(10k  1.5k)  12.34V
79
 Approximate analysis
If (β+1)RE is much larger than the R2, the current IB will be much smaller than I2. If we
accept the approximation that IB is essentially 0A compared to I1 or I2, then I1=I2 and R1
and R2 can be considered series elements.
The voltage across R2 is actually the base voltage, can be determined using the voltage-
divider rule.
R2
VB  VCC
R1  R2
If (   1) RE   RE  10 R2
the approximate approach can be applied with
, a high degree of accuracy.

VE VB  VBE
VE  VB  VBE IE  
RE RE

IC  I E VCE  VCC  I C ( RC  RE )
80
Example:
Determine the levels of ICQ and VCEQ for the voltage-divider configuration of Fig. using the
approximate techniques .

β=200

81
Solution:
VCC R2 (18V )22k
VB    3.81V
R1  R2 82k  22k
VE  VB  VBE  3.81V  0.7V  3.11V
VE 3.11V
IC  I E    2.59mA
RE 1.2k
VCE  VCC  I C ( RC  R E )
 18V  (2.59mA)(5.6k  1.2k)  3.88V

82
 Saturation current and load line analysis of
voltage-divider configuration

Saturation current and load-line analysis are same as those of emitter-bias

configuration
VCC
I Csa t 
RC  RE

VCE  VCC I C  0 mA

VCC
IC 
RC  RE VCE  0V
83