CROP PROTECTION 21

Approaches and Practices in Pest

Management
 INTRODUCTION
WHAT ARE PESTS?
 Organisms that harm man & his properties

HARM – of
Quality of Product-
economic
impaired
importance
Quantity- reduced
General Category of Pests
 Anthropocentric – centered on man
 Circumstancial
Ex. Termites in decaying logs help return back
organic matter to the soil
Termites that destroy the house of man
 Aesthetic – mere presence is highly
objectionable

 Medical – cause discomforts, pain, diseases

 PEST STATUS
Pest status - ranking relative to the economics of
the crop
Factors that affect pest status
1. Population Density -problem arise because of
numbers
2. Kind of crop attacked (economic importance,
market value, susceptibility to injury
3. Crop vigor ( depends on cultural practices)
4. Environment
- variable weather conditions (moisture &
temperature)
 Type of Pests (Based on Status)

1.Sub-economic /non-economic – the GEP is

below the EIL
GEP ( General Equilibrium Position ) - the
population’s long term average density
EIL (Economic Injury Level) – The lowest
number of insects that will cause economic
damage
Economic Damage – the amount of injury that
justifies the cost of pest control
Figure. Graph representing a noneconomic or subeconomic pest.

Pest number

EIL

GEP

Time

EIL- Economic injury level

GEP- General equilibrium position
2. Occasional Pests
• GEP below EIL but may sometimes
exceed
• Pest present all year round but
• does not cause economic damage

What to do?
 Wait and see attitude
 Employ tactics only if ETL
is reached
 Pesticide use is infrequent
 EIL- Economic
injury level
GEP- General
equilibrium
position
Pest number

EIL

GEP

Time

Figure. Graph representing an occasional pest.

3.Perennial Pests ( Key Pests)
• GEP also below EIL but very close to EIL
• Population density is of great numbers
• Economic damage occur most years
• Damage is unacceptable to consumers

What to do?
 Reduce the GEP of the
pest population
3. Perennial Pests
 GEP is below but very close to the economic injury level
 Oftenly, population peaks reach economic injury level
 economic damage may occur
EIL- Economic
injury level
GEP- General
equilibrium
Pest number

EIL position

GEP

Time
Figure. Graph representing a perennial pest.
4.Severe Pest
• GEP is above the EIL
• Pest is always a constant
problem

What to do?
 Reduce the GEP of pest
population by frequent
pesticide spraying
4. Severe Pests
 GEP is always above the economic injury level hence , a constant problem
 the primary strategy is to reduce the GEP of the population by frequent use of
pesticides but,
• side effects
• environmental problems

EIL- Economic
injury level
GEP- General
equilibrium
GEP position
Pest number

EIL

Time
Figure. Graph representing a severe pest.
Frequent pesticide spraying has
undesirable effects

1. Health Risks
2. Environmental pollution
3. Development of resistance to
pesticides by pest organisms
4. Development of variable pests
5. Costly
 II. BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
A. Pest Populations – pest numbers
Population Attributes
1. Density - number of individuals per unit of
measure
Ex. 15 leafhoppers/sq m
2. Dispersion - how population is distributed
per unit area
3. Natality – birth rate
4. Mortality - death rate
5. Distribution
6. Growth Forms
Type of Pest Populations ( Based on spatial
dispersion )

 Random – evenly
distributed

 Aggregated –clumped

 Uniform - regular
Natality
• Fecundity – rate at which a female
produces ova . Affected by :
- environmental factors
food
• Fertility - rate at which female produces
fertilized eggs

Distribution
• Age ( 75% adult & 25 % young)
• Sex ( 25 % males & 75 % females )
 Mortality
Factors Affecting Mortality
1. Aging
2. Low vitality]
3. Accident
4. Physico -chemical conditions
5. Natural enemies
6. Food Shortage
7. Lack of shelter
B. Ecosystems And Agro-ecosystems
1. Definitions and Concept
• Ecosystem - an ecological unit consisting of populations
in a community that are strongly influenced by the
physical environment Examples : Pond ecosystems,
forest ecosystems, Lake ecosystems

• Community – the interacting web of populations

Example: Plant Community
insects,
Pathogens
Weeds
• Agro-ecosystem – any ecosystem created and
maintained to satisfy human wants. It is a basic unit of
study of Pest Management
Characteristics of an Agro-ecosystem
1. lacks temporal continuity
 abrupt climatic changes
 burning
 cutting
 chemical applications
2. Plants are selected by humans
3. Plants are genetically uniform
4. All plants have the same phenology
5. Nutrients are added
6. Frequent outbreaks of pests
• Effective Environment - composed of
elements in an ecosystem that have a
direct influence on reproduction, survival,
and movements of the subject species
 an important force which either
supports or inhibit growth &
development of populations
 these are weather factors, food
quality/quantity
• Life system – the subject species and its
effective environment
Example: subject species are insects
 their numbers depends upon their inherited
properties and the attributes of the effective
environment ( effect is either promote or reduce
pest numbers)
 genetic properties affect reproductive and survival
ability
 reproductive ability ( Potential natality) vary
among insects depending upon the effective
environment.
 survival rates depend upon feeding habits and
protection of the youngs
• r strategists
insect pests with high reproductive rates but low
survival rates
 overwhelm the environments with new
individuals
 may cause great losses
 best example is aphids
• k strategists
insect pests with low reproductive rates but high
survival rates
Species that are oftenly hard to deal with
Resilient to environemntal hazards
Compete effectively for environmental resources
 best example is coddling moth
C. Environment and Development
FACTs:
 Organisms are capable of survival only within certain
environmental limits
 Individuals seek out preferred temperatures, humidities,
light intensities ( within favorable range)
 Of the environmental factors, temperature has the greatest
effect on insect development( insects are generally
poikilothermic – cold blooded)
 Developmental rates increases with temperature
 chemical reaction occurs more frequently and
proceeds more rapidly
 enzyme formation an substrate diffusion is faster
 greater thermal energy is provided for biochemical
reactions
III. MONITORING, SURVEILLANCE AND
SAMPLING
A. Definitions
1. Monitoring - to keep track of, keep watch
of, regulate or control the operation
2. Surveillance – the watch kept on a pest
for detection of presence, and
determination of density, dispersion and
dynamics
3. Sampling – taking representation of a
total population; making estimates
B.Importance of Monitoring
1. Pest and populations activities are
detected and documented
2. Pest management decisions will be made

C.Type of Pest Surveys

1. Qualitative
 mere listing of species along with an attempt
to understand extent of infestation .
 descriptive/subjective reference is included
Example; plant hopper – abundant or rare
or common
2. Quantitative
 the most common type used in
pest management .
 defines numerically the abundance
of the pest in time and space.
 used to predict population trends
 used to predict potential damage
caused by pests
D. Pest Sampling – make estimates
1. Types of estimates
a. Absolute – measures actual numbers
Example: 10 GLH/ plant
 Not widely used (high cost of materials in
measuring insect counts )
- suction traps - Berlese Funnel

b. Population Intensity Estimates (PIE)

 measures number per habitat unit. Used frequently.
 Useful in establishing EIL (closely related to crop
injury
Examples; number of aphids/leaf/ stem
c. Basic Population Estimates (BPE)
 An intermediate between absolute and PIE
 combines habitat unit with unit of measure
 example is number of insect per 10 sq. ft of
branch surface or number of insects per row
foot

d. Relative Estimates – based on the sampling

technique
 Sweep net technique - Number of insects
per 10 sweeps
 does not answer the problem of how
many insects per acre per plant or per row.
E. Common Sampling Techniques
1. In situ Counts – direct counts and direct observation
 No need for especial equipment
 Rely on good vision
 done on specific plant part
 good for early season pests
 samples maybe taken randomly
 most widely used
2. Knockdown - remove the pest then count
 jarring - low growing plants
 chemicals -
 heating – pest place in special device for heating.
3. Netting - for sampling a variety of insects together
with natural enemies
 sweep net
 air net
4. Trapping – insects are mobile and the idea is to lure the insect
 the trap must hold the captured insects
 traps are left for a period of time, then collected
 two types are;
- light trap - used to trap moths ( Lepidoptera) and dipterans
- Bait trapping ( insects used their olfactory organs)
Example is yeast + molasses attracts seedcorn maggots
adults
- pitfall traps ( fro ground moving insects)

5. Soil extraction – use of Berlese funnel to extract nematodes

 IV. BASIC ECONOMIC CONCEPTS
A. Definitions/Concepts
• Economic Damage – the amount of pest injury
that justifies the cost of control
- injury ( effect of pest feeding)
- damage (measurable loss of host utility)

• Economic Injury Level (EIL)– the lowest

number of insect pest that cause economic
damage
- expressed as number per unit area )
• Economic Threshold Level (ETL)
 refers to the number of insects when
management action should be taken
 The best index of pest management
 Also called action threshold
 No action should be taken below ETL
 Should be below EIL to be able to
respond to a developing pest problem
in the field
 The most effective action is curative
or therapeutic
 Management
activity

EIL
ET
Number of insects

Time 1 Time 2
Time
Figure. Graph showing the relationship between the economic threshold (ET)
and the economic injury level (EIL) in taking action against an insect
population.
How to Establish EIL
1. Estimate injury made on plants by pests
Ex. % defoliation by defoliators
2. Relate estimated injury with growth and yield
EIL is very dynamic – affected by :
 environmental factors
 pest type
 crop stage

How to establish ETL

1. Determine the population density of pest
2. Relate density with growth and yield of the
crop
B. Management Decision Rule Categories
1. No threshold
 with or without pests, management should be done
 prevention rather than cure
 usually calendar application with appropriate
cultural management
2. Nominal threshold
 decision rules based on the manager’s experience
 decision is conservative ( no action if not needed)
 reduced pesticide application
 the most frequent type implemented
 not based on rigorous research
3. Simple thresholds
 Calculated based on average responses
of the host to injury
 elements included in calculation are:
- market value
- management cost
- damage done /insect
- yield reduction
 the best current practice but fail to
consider interaction of several pests
4.Comprehensive thresholds
Requires an understanding of the host
plant and its reaction to combined
stressors, both biotic and physical
Dry matter partitioning
 quantified yield
Need computer-based information
delivery system
PEST MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
A. Historical Insights of Pest Control
1.Pre-historic Era
 2500 BC ( Pre-biblical times)
 use of herbs & oils by the Egyptians
• to protect seeds/grains from pests
 Use of sulphur by ancient Sumerians
 300 BC
 timely planting (phenology) to avoid crop
losses
 use of natural enemies like ants by the
Chinese
2. Dark Ages- Middle Ages ( No advancements
made )

3. From 1101- late 1700)

 use of soap to control pests ( Chinese)
 use of tobacco infusions and other herbal
insecticides (late 1600)
 use of arsenicals
 use of temperature to determine insect
phenology & predict insect events
 the concept of plant resistance was
advanced ( 1700)
4.From 1800- early 1900
 development of insecticide application
equipment like the power sprayer

5.1920 – 1930 - Other Approaches were

established
 crop sanitation
 Timing of planting
 Environment manipulation
6.1939-1962 ( Insecticide Era)
 Discovery of the DDT ( dichlorodiphenyl
trichloroethane)
• first produced by a German Graduate
Student, Othmar Zeidler
• Muller discovered its insecticidal property
against many insects like
 Mosquitoes
 fleas
 Lice
• Muller received a nobel price for this
discovery
 discovery of the Insecticidal properties
of organophosphates ( by Schrader &
Bayer)
 Active development of chemicals as
insecticides
 Application was calendar-based without
considering plant phenology density and
damage
 this worked well from 1940’s to 50’s
  Problems started after the 50’s

 air pollution
 ecological
 water pollution
effects  soil pollution

 insecticide destructive strains

resistance (biotypes)

 Health human toxicity

problems
1962 - Rachel Carson
Accusations of
wrote and published “
pesticides as
Silent Spring”
environmentally
unsafe

Significant ly influenced the direction

of Pest control not only in the US but
worldwide

The concept of Pest Management

was strengthened
The Emergence of Pest Management
Pest Management - Anchored Lasting
on Biological Control Solutions

Used Alone did not give Integrated

satisfactory
containment of pests
Approach
emphasized
1961 - Clark & Geier introduced the principles of
Pest Management
- Coined the term Protective Population
Management

Since Then, PEST MANAGEMENT

became the major pest control
philosophy for Agricultural pests
particularly in developed
countries
THE CONCEPT OF PEST MANAGEMENT

Definition
A comprehensive approach
to pest control that uses
combined means to reduce the
status of pest to tolerable
levels while maintaining a
quality environment
WHY IS THERE A NEED FOR PEST MANAGEMENT?

1.To reduce pest status

by reducing reproductive rates
2. to reduce pest populations
3. to maintain a quality environment
–(conservation of wildlife, air, water,
soil, plants)
Elements of Pest Management
1. multiple compatible tactics
Ex. Natural enemies+ RV + ETL
2. Pest Populations below EIL
3. conservation of environmental quality
4. Selective for pests
5. Comprehensive for the production
system
6. Compatible with ecological principles
7. tolerant of potentially harmful species
but within acceptable limits
Pest Management Strategies and Tactics

Type of strategies (based on economics

and pest characteristics)

1.Do nothing Strategy

 pest densities are below ET
 monitor pest populations
 adequate sampling is needed
to assure that the action is
appropriate
How to monitor pest populations
 Actual/direct counting ( for slow or
stationary pests
 net sweeping ( mobile species
 trapping
 light trapping
 pheromone trapping
2.Reduce Pest Population Numbers
 most widely used strategy
 employs therapeutic measures when pest
densities reach ET or preventive measures
 where GEP is low with respect to ET, dampen
population peaks by:
 involves action that will not change the GEP
 prevents economic damage

Some Tactics
- natural enemies
- HPR
- pheromone traps
- male sterile techniques
3.Reduce Crop Susceptibility
 one of the most effective and
environmentally desirable strategy
 insect population is not modified at all
 relay on changes made on the host to make
it less susceptible to pests
Strategies
 use of HPR
 crop environmental manipulation
(fertilization, planting dates, to upset
synchrony between pest and susceptible or
critical stage)
How to Reduce Crop Susceptibility

Use of HPR- vary depending upon :

 plant characters for resistance
 pests to be controlled

On sorghum - On cotton -okra-type

compact panicles, leaves with frego bracts
more attacked by are least prefered by H.
grain pests than armigera for oviposition
with loose panicles
4.Combined strategy (reduced numbers
and crop susceptibility )

 the most desirable strategy

 multifaceted program (rely on
multiple tactics so, if one tactic fails,
others are present)
 formed the basis for IPM
GENERAL APPROACHES IN PEST
MANAGEMENT

I. Ecological Management of
the Crop Environment
II. Dealing Directly with the
Pest
 GENERAL APPROACHES IN PEST MANAGEMENT

I. Ecological Management of the Crop Environment

 based on a thorough understanding of pest
ecology of the crop being produced
Pest’s Ecological Requisites
1. satisfactory food sources and space for
feeding
2. mating environment
3. egg laying places
4. shelter from adverse weather & from enemies
 How Ecological Management is
achieved
A. Reduce the Average Favorability of the
Ecosystem
B. Disrupt Comtinuity of Pest Requisites
C. Divert Pest Popluations Away From the
Crop
D. Reduce the Impact of Pest Injury
2.
How Ecological Management is achieved (contd)
A. Reduce the Average Favorability of the
Ecosystem
1. Sanitation
 crop residue destruction
(shredding/chopping/burning/ deep plowing under/
 crop residue utilization ( feeding to animals
 animal waste or decaying matter
disposal/elimination
 Efficient Storage and Processing
 2.cleaning of facilities
 elimination of spillage
Maintaining a cool and dry atmosphere
2.Destruction or Modification of Alternate
Hosts and Habitat
 applicable to pest whose requirements
can be completed by the crop hosts
Switch to other crops
 burning/plowing under of alternate host
 reduce pest numbers
 some natural enemies habitat are the
alternate hosts hence, if eliminated may
affect their availability

 WEIGH THE BENEFITS

3. Tillage
 a major cultural activity
 for better crop management
 for weed control
 destruction of pest habitat
 destruction of soil pests
 modification of tillage operations should
consider
 timing ( (life cycle & behavior)
 tillage depth
 knowledge of the soil fauna/flora
4. Irrigation & Water Management
 a primary plant culture activity
 the primary target of flooding are the soil
pests like
 immature wireworms
 root pests
 overhead irrigation effective in suppressing
some foliage feeding insects
• may deter egg laying
• kill newly emerged larvae
• wash out spores & other pathogens
on plant surfaces
How Ecological Management is achieved (contd)
B. DISRUPTING THE CONTINUITY OF PEST REQUISITES

Crop Spacing
 closer create closed canopies that aid in pest
movement
 create higher humidity that enhance epidemics of
fungal diseases
 Crop location
 pest producing edge effect tend to cause
disproportionately greater damage in small fields
 it is wise to locate dissimilar crops adjacent to
one another to moderate pest movement
 legume next to grass
 Crop Rotation
 to improve soil structure & fertility
 it works best if
 the pest has a narrow host range
 eggs are laid before the new crop is
planted
 the feeding stage is not very mobile
 Examples of insects effectively managed
are;
• root pests
• mite pests
 crop fallowing
 the supply of requisites for pests is
affected
 may not be very practical but may be
effective for certain pests as a WAY OF
PURGING AN AREA OF DIFFICULT PESTS
 Example: aphids that transmit virus
diseases
 Disrupt/change crop phenology
 to cause asynchrony between
crop & pest
 time emergence, flowering ,
fruiting or seed maturity when pests
are at low ebb
 topping
- hastens maturity
- minimize infestation by pests including
birds
C. DIVERTING PEST POPULATIONS AWAY FROM THE CROP

1.Trap Cropping
 planting another crop in between or
n an area near the main crop
 a way of co9nserving natural enemies
in an agro-ecosystem
2.Strip Harvesting
 harvesting different areas at different
times
 insects are not forced to search for
requisites in adjacent crops
 D. REDUCING THE IMPACT OF PEST INJURY

1.Modify Host Tolerance

 Usually achieved genetically
 non-genetic ways can be done to produce
highly vigorous plants
 cultural practices ( fertilization weeding,
irrigations etc.
2.Modify Harvest Schedules
 Early harvesting is recommended
 make adjustments of planting and
harvesting calendar
II. DEALING DIRECTLY WITH THE PEST
A. Biological Control
B. Use of chemical modifiers of behavior &
Development
C. Use of Sterile insect Technique
D. Use of Natural Plant Products &
Biopesticides
E. Physical Control
F. Mechanical Control
G. Conventional Pesticides
II. DEALING DIRECTLY WITH THE PEST
A.Biological Control
broad sense , it makes use of all
living organisms to reduce pest
populations
 conventionally, - a pest
management tactic involving
purposeful natural enemy
manipulation to reduce pest status
II. DEALING DIRECTLY WITH THE PEST
A.Biological Control
historically, - the oldest and most
effective means of achieving insect
control
 first established in the US in 1888
using the vedalia beetle, Rodolia
cardinales against the cottony cushion
scale, Icerya purchasi on citrus
 makes use of natural enemies of pests
 primary regulating forces in insect
populations and pathogens
 can be manipulated, augmented for
use by farmers
 its goal is not total elimination of insect
pests
 food supply of natural enemy is not
eliminated
 Agents of Biological Control of Insect Pests

1. Parasites & Parasitoids

a. Parasites – live /feed on or within its
living host (weaken or kill its host)
b. Parasitoids – insects that parasitize
other insects and arthropods
Parasitic (immature stage ; adult, free
living)
practically kill their hosts
 Agents of Biological Control ( cont’d)

1. Parasites & Parasitoids

b. Parasitoids (continued)
may attack any host stage ( adult, least
frequently parasitized)
either penetrate the body wall and lay
eggs inside or attach their eggs
outside the host then burrow inside
 Agents of Biological Control ( cont’d)

1. Parasites & Parasitoids (cont’d)

b. oftenly effective agents because :
 survival is high
 only one host is required to
complete development
 populations can be sustained at
low host levels
 have narrow host range
 Examples of parasitoids
 Trichogramma spp.
 Ichneumonid parasitic
wasps
 Braconid wasps
 Tachinid fly
Problems with parasitoids
 host searching capacities are affected by
environmental factors
 only the female searches the target pest
 best searchers have low reproductive
capacity
 to be effective, life cycle must coincide
closely with that of its host
 Many are non-selective
 Can also be parasitized by other parasites
while feeding
 Others are selective
2. Predators
 free living organisms that prey and devour
their hosts completely
 both immature and adults are attacked
 some predators are
• monophagous
• polyphagous
• oligophagous
 effective since:
• kill their prey rapidly
• all stages search for prey
• NO NEED FOR SYNCHRONIZED LIFE CYCLES OF
BOTH PREDATOR AND PREY
3.Entomopathogens
 microbial groups that can cause diseases
on arthropods particularly insects
 China is the first to recognize insect pests
being attacked by entomopathogens ( Apis
millefera & Bombyx mori) in 2700BC
 earliest investigation dates back to the `18th
century
 Insect Pathology was developed in the 20th
century which gave significant contribution in
the field of bio-control
 major entomopathogens include:
• Beauveria bassiana ( fungus), white
muscardine diseases
• Nosema bombycis ( pebrine diseases )
• Bacillus thuriengiensis
• NPV / CPV .
these microorganisms can cause disease
epidemics in natural insect populations
 bacteria and viruses are the most
studied for use as microbial insecticide
• kill insects quickly
• more resilient to weather than fungi
Biological Control of plant Pathogens
1. Use of Microbial parasites /Antagonists
a. Fungal antagonists – attack parasitic fungi
Ex. Trichoderma harzianum - effective against
Fusarium, leaf anthracnose
Peniophora effective against Fomes
(Commercially produced spore suspensions to treat
stumps)
b. Bacterial antagonist – attack bacterial or fungal
pathogens
Ex. Bacillus subtilis – antagonistic to
anthracnose pathogen and potato scab pathogen
(Streptomyces scabies )
2. Use of mycorhiza as barrier to infection -
roots colonized by mycorrihizae may be
protected from Fusarium, Pythium etc. -
interference
3. use of mild strain against a severe strain of
the same virus – Cross protection

Mechanisms 0f microbial antagonism

 Hyper parasitism
 Mechanical Obstruction
 Competition for nutrients
 Production of antibiotics/inhibitors
 Biological control , (cont’d)

Factors limiting the use of Natural Enemies

1. Temperature Extremes
2. Chemical pesticides
3. Pest Densities
4. Social factors
 low tolerance of pest damage by
consumers
 poor supply of natural enemies
 poor advisory services by farmers
 natural enemies supply system is poor
B. Use of Resistant Varieties (HPR)

Use of HPR- vary depending upon :

 plant characters for resistance
 pests to be controlled

On sorghum - On cotton, those with

varieties with okra-type leaves and
compact panicles with frego bracts have
are more by grain less ovipositional
pests than with preferences by H.
loose panicles armigera
Mechanisms of Resistance to Insect s
1. Non-preference ( antixenosis - a plant characteristics
that lead insects away from them
 allelochemic
Ex. Cucurbitacin ( Cucurbits) – an attractant &
feeding incitant to beetles like Diabrotica
 morphological
Ex. Pubescent surfaces – prefered by H. armigera
for ovipositing
tight corn husks resist damage by corn earworm
 practical in the presence of alternate hosts in
the vicinity
 otherwise , may breakdown
2. Antibiosis- plant characteristics that impair the
metabolic process of insects
 allelochemics
Ex. Hydroxamic acid in corn ( DMBOA)
Gossypol in cotton
glycosides in potato
 primary metabolites
Ex. Imbalances in sugars ( nutritional
deficiencies)
 low amino acids in peas resist pea aphids
 asparagine deficiency - reduced fecundity
Effects of antibiosis
1. Death of immatures
2. Reduced growth rate
3. Pupal mortality
4. Shortened life span
5. malformations
6. restlessness
7. reduced fecundity
3.Tolerance
 only plant response is involved
 plant productivity not affected
despite injury caused by the feeding
pest
 no development of variants
since there is no selection pressure
 a source of problem for other
crops
 Pseudoresistance – relies much on
prevailing environmental conditions
Types
1. Host evasion – plant passes a
susceptible stage ( early maturing)
2. Induced resistance- due to improved
plant condition or environmental condition
3. host escape- susceptible plants
uninfested due to lack of infestation
B. Use of Chemical Modifiers of Behavior &
Development
1. Disrupt Normal Growth and Development
 called insect growth regulators ( IGR)
 also known as biorationals or 3rd
generation insecticides
( 1st generation -- stomach poisons; 2nd
generation – contact poisons )
 used to kill or sterilized insects in a given
area
 can be applied using insecticide equipment
 effective only for immature pests
 Disturb the normal
Mode of Action activity of the insect
Of IGRs endocrine system

Endocrine
Initiate & regulate
glands produce
molting process &
specific
metamorphosis
hormones
Registered IGR’s for use ( Juvenile hormone analogues)

Methoprene
 under the trade name Altossid
 used to suppress mosquito l larvae
and horn fly
 used as food additive for cattle
which is passed through the dung and
affect development of maggots
 also used to enhance silk production
in Bombyx mori.
Registered IGR’s for use ( Juvenile hormone analogues)

Kinoprene
 effective against Homoptera
 affects all life stages of whiteflies, and
mealybugs
 sold under the trade name Enstar
Hydroprene
 for indoor pests like cockroaches
 nymph exposure causes the adult to
become sterile
 sold under the trade name Gencor
 Advantages of IGR’s
• low toxicity to warm blooded
• environmentally compatible
• practical where instantaneous control is not
needed

2. Modify Behavior Patterns

 chemicals that mediate attraction, repellency,
stimulation or deterrence
mating, feeding, communication behavior may
be affected
 called semiochemicals ( pheromones or
allelochemics)
 Practical Applications
1. Use of pheromones as insect attraction
a. Sex pheromone
- produced to attract opposite sex.
- highly developed among Lepidoptera
- produced by eversible glands at the tip of
the abdomen
b. Alarm pheromone
- common among social insects
- elicit attack or retreat behavior
c. Trail marking pheromone
- produced by foraging ants and termiotes
- indicates sources of requisites
 Important uses of pheromones
1. Sampling & detection
 as attractants in traps - can monitor activities,
populations, presence of harmful species
2. an attract-kill program
 ( pheromone + insecticide mix)
3. Mating disruption
 purpose is to confuse the mates , cause
reductuion in mating
 done by permeating the whole environment with
pheromone
C. Use of Sterile–Insect Technique
 focus = altering the genetic make-up
in order to:
 produce reproductive potentials
 produce sterile progeny
 reduce fecundity
 reduce survivorship in a favorable
environment
 more effective if integrated with insecticide
application
 D. Use of Natural Plant Products &
Biopesticides
1.Botanicals
Crude Extracts of Tephrosia sp. -
comparable with dimethoate in
controlling pod borers on pigenpea
 Neem cake extract is comparable with
deltamethrin in controlling Helicoverpa
armigera on groundnut
 Botanicals/biopesticides ( cont’d)

2. Biopesticides – microbial
organisms that control insect
pests and diseases
 Metarrhizium spp. and NPV
against lepidopteropus larvae
 Bacillus thuringiensis/
Trichoderma harzianum
against a number of fungal
pathogens
 E. PHYSICAL CONTROL
1.Trapping - use colored traps

yellow Winged aphids

traps White flies

White or
blue Adult thrips
Examples of Specific endocrine glands &
hormones
1. Neurosecretory cells secrete brain hormone that
stimulate prothoracic gland to produce ecdysone
causing insects to molt.
2. Corpora allata secrete juvenile hormone
 supresses the development of adult structures
among the immature
 stimulates ovary development & egg yolk
production among adults
 may also influence diapause, behavior,
communication system
 regulates caste differentiation among social
insects
 PHYSICAL CONTROL (cont’d)

2. High Temperature – green houses

 Insect populations increase
exponentially with increasing
temperatures

3. Soil Solarization
 reduce the incidences of soil-
borne pathogens
F. CONVENTIOAL PESTICIDE APPLICATION
Advantages
 a regular component of growing crops
 can treat pest problems rapidly
 maybe economical in the short run
compared with other tactics
 there is ease of application with
pesticides
 persons with minimal
training/experience can use them
 F. CONVENTIOAL PESTICIDE
APPLICATION

 Disadvantages ( frequent use can cause)

 insecticide resistance
 pest resurgence
 pest replacement
 negative impact to non-target species
 health risks
 environmental pollution
Insecticide Classification
1. Stomach
 enters the body through the gut
 fatal only when eaten
2. Contact -
 absorbed through the body wall
3. Systemic -
 taken –up and translocated by the plants and
insect feeding on the treated plants will be affected
4. Fumigants
 insecticides in gaseous forms
 enter through the tracheal system and
absorbed by the body tissues
Registered IGR’s for use ( Juvenile hormone analogues)

Methoprene
 under the trade name Altossid
 used to suppress mosquito l larvae
and horn fly
 used as food additive for cattle
which is passed through the dung and
affect development of maggots
 also used to enhance silk production
in Bombyx mori.
Registered IGR’s for use ( Juvenile hormone analogues)

Kinoprene
 effective against Homoptera
 affects all life stages of whiteflies, and
mealybugs
 sold under the trade name Enstar
Hydroprene
 for indoor pests like cockroaches
 nymph exposure causes the adult to
become sterile
 sold under the trade name Gencor
 Group of Pesticides According to
Chemical Composition

A. Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
 the oldest class of insecticide
 contains chlorine, hydrogen, carbon
 may also contains oxygen and sulphur
 Stable
 it takes months or years to breakdown
 some may be non-degradable
A. examples of chlorinated hydrocarbons
1.DDT,
2.HCH ( BHC) and , lindane
3. Cyclodienes
 aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, heptachlor,
endrin, endosulfan
4. Polychloroterpenes
 strobane ,
 toxaphene widely used in agriculture
(cotton)
C. Carbamates
 a broad spectrum insecticide with wide application
in Agriculture
 highly toxic to Hymenoptera ( pollinators,
parasitoids)
 examples; carbaryl & carbofuran propoxur for
household pests like cockroaches

D. Pyrethroids
 Allethrin – first generation pyrethroid
 fenvalerate & permethrin – third generation
pyrethroid for above ground pests
 Cypermethrin – fourth generation pyrethroid
( more potent
E. Botanicals
 derived directly from plants
 extraction is expensive hence not very
practical
 Pyrethrum – from flower petals of
chrysanthemum (household aerosol sprays
 Nicotine - from tobacco leaves for
piercing-sucking insects & mites
 Rotenone – from roots of Derris for
chewing & piercing-sucking insectsd
 Ryania & Sabadilla – alkalloids against
caterpillars in gardens and and fruit trees
F.Fumigants
 highly volatile pesticides
 effective against immature
insects
 as ovicidal
 Mode of Action of Insecticides

1.As nerve poisons

 affect the nervous system mostly as
 narcotics ( induce unconsciousness
in insects)
- lodge in fatty tissues
- nerve sheaths
- lipoprotein of the brain
 reversible – insects can recover
 Mode of Action of Insecticides
1. As nerve poisons
 affect the nervous system mostly as
axonic poisons (interrupt normal axonic
transmission of the nervous system)
- chlorinated hydrocarbons and pyrethroids
- may cause convulsions, paraalysis & death
 synaptic poisons ( interrupt normal synaptic
transmission of the nervous system
- nicotine & nicotinic sulfate affects causes
build-up of acetylcholine
- symtoms are restlessness, tremors,
convulsions
2. As muscle poison
 directly affect muscle tissues
 alkaloids & ryanodines disrupt the excitable
membrane of the muscles resulting to tenfold
increase in oxygen consumption followed by
paralysis and death

3. As Physical toxicants
 block metabolic process by physical poisonins
 common with oils
 cause clogging of the spiracles
 may also cause dessication due to increased
water loss from the body
 death
 EFFECTIVE USE OF INSECTICIDES

Choice of pesticides
 cost
 formulation available
 equipment required
 convenience
 EFFECTIVE USE OF INSECTICIDES

Choice of Dosage
 general rule – least dosage, the better
 reduction not total elimination
 to avoid insecticide resistance
 least cost
 for exotic pests ( newly introduced) - higher dosage
needed
 hormoligosis (pests are stimulated to reproduce at
sublethal doses) – use higher dosages
Time of Application
 determined based on characteristics
& status of tarfget pest
 environmental conditions
 life cycle ( know susceptible stage)
 seasonal cycle ( peak of occurences)
 population density ( ETL, EIL)
 E. Integrated Pest Management

involves proper choice of compatible

tactics & blending them such that
each complement with one another
Examples:
 HPR + crop sanitation = compatible
results
 Insecticide + preventive measures
 Best IPM Options vary with the pests
and the crop
 explore the possibility of maximizing
efficacy of insecticide use while minimizing
harmful effects on the
 environment
 human beings
 other organisms
Key elements of IPM (Best Options)
 defined planting windows to avoid
exposure to high densities of pests
 Removal of weeds and volunteer plants
 Defined spray thrsholds for pesticides
 Pest Monitoring
 HPR
 Bio-control
 Optimized cultural practices
 Best IPM Options for Corn Against
Helicoverpa armigera
Plant refuges ( Refugia)
 Early planting
 removal of volunteer crops
 Use of RV
 defined spray thrsholds
 mass release of parasitoids
For Citrus/ fruit trees
 light traps for adult
moths
 pheromone trap for
fruit flies
 optimized cultural
practices
 clean culture
For tomato
 Trichogramma
 NPV
 optimized cultural practices
 clean culture
For Pigeonpea
 sticky yellow traps
 microbial
 optimized cultural practices
 clean culture
 resistant cultivars
For Sweet sorghum
 Trichogramma
 NPV
 optimized cultural practices
 clean culture
 yellow stickytrap for aphids
 use of predator earwigs
 use of sweet sorghum vinegar
THANK YOU
&
GOD BLESS