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REFERENCE…..

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Contents
1 Referring Expression

2 Predicates

Predicates, Referring
3 Expression, and Universe of
Discourse

4 Deixis and Definiteness

Words and Things:Extentions

5 and Prototypes
 Our Team Member

1. GRACENDY ALUZ CLARITA BUDIONO (0203521031)

2. MAR` ATUL LATIFAH JAUHARIN NAFI (0203521034)

3. PUTRI ANINDIA SOFIANA (0203521037)

 REFERRING EXPRESSION
A. Reference
• The definition of reference is the speaker's way of indicating which thing or person is being talked about.
• Reference studies, like sense studies, are divided into two fields, namely speaker-reference and linguistic-reference.
• There are several concepts related to references, namely references, extensions, prototypes and stereotypes)

B. Referring Expression
• Definition of Referring Epression is any expression used in an utterance to refer to something or someone (or a
clearly delimeted collection of things or people), i.e. used with a particular referent in mind.
• Example :
Fred hit me : The speaker has a particular person in mind. “Fred” is a referring expression.
There’s no Fred at this address : The speaker would not have a particular person in mind, so “Fred” is not a referri
ng expression.
C. Types of Referring Expression
1. Indefinite Noun Phrase : uses articles in its
expression
Example :
- A boy who wore a blue jacket is friendly.
- Some mango are bought by my parents.
- Three girls are playing piano.
D. More Notion of Referring Expression
1. An opaque context
An opaque context is a part of sentence which
could be made into a complete sentence by the
addition of referring expression.
2. Definite Noun Phrase : uses proper name, personal
pronoun and longer descriptive expression.
Example :
- Aji is friendly.
- He is studying English.
- The person who stole my bike is my friend.
2. An aquative sentence
An aquative sentence is a part of a sentence
which could be made into a complete sentence by
the addition of referring expression.
 PREDICATES
A. Definition of Predicate
Predicate is any word (or sequence of words) which (in given single sense) can function as the predicator of a
sentence.
Example :
Predicates : Hungry, in, crool, asleep, hit, show, bottle
Not predicate : and, or, but, not
A. Definition of Predicator
The predicator of a simple declarative sentence is a word (sometimes a group of words) that does not belong to any of
the referring expressions.
Example :
Daddy is asleep – Asleep is the predicator
The young man loved the Indian maiden – Love is the predicator
Tommy was waiting for the downtowns bus – Wait for is the predicator
 C. Differences between
Predicator and Predicate
- Predicate : Identifies elements in the
language system, independently of particular
example sentences.
- Predicator : Identifies the semantic role played
by a particular word (or group of word) in a
particular sentence.
D. Degree of Predicate
The definition is a number indicating the number
of arguments it is normally understood to have in
simple sentences.
Example :
Mina is sneezing : The only argument on that
sentence is Mina. Therefore it is called one place
predicate.
Mina is feeding the parrot : The argument on
that setence is Mina and the parrot, it’s called two
place predicate.
Mina gave Salsa a nice present : The number
of arguments on the sentence are Mina, Salsa
and a nice present. It’s called three place
predicate.
Predicates, Referring Expression, and Universe of Di
scourse
The distinction and the relationship between referring
expressions and predicates.

We will see how the same word can be used for the
radically different functions of reference and predication. And we will begin to
see how these two functions fit together in the overall language system.
Imagine that you and I are in a room with a man and a woman, and, making no visu
al signal of any sort, I say to you, ‘The man stole my wallet’.

• If in the situation described above I had said, ‘A man stole my wallet’, would you
automatically know the referent of the subject expression a man? Yes / No
• So does the definite article, the, prompt the hearer to (try to) identify the referent
of a referring expression? Yes / No
• Does the indefinite article, a, prompt the hearer to (try to) identify the referent of
a referring expression? Yes / No
There are some phrases, in particular indefinite noun phrases, that can be used in two ways, either
as referring expressions, or as predicating expressions.

Practice
(1) Is a man in John attacked a man
a referring expression? Yes / No
(2) Is a man in John is a man a refer
ring expression? Yes / No
 GENERIC SENTENCE
A GENERIC SENTENCE is a sentence in which some statement is made
about a whole unrestricted class of individuals, as opposed to any particular
individual.

Example :

The whale is a mammal (understood in the most usual way) is a generic

sentence.

That whale over there is a mammal is not a generic sentence.

Are the following generic sentences?
(1) Gentlemen prefer blondes Yes / No
(2) Jasper is a twit Yes / No
(3) The male of the species guards the eggs Yes / No
(4) A wasp makes its nest in a hole in a tree Yes / No
(5) A wasp just stung me on the neck Yes / No
 Your Picture Here

Language is used to talk about the real world, and can be used to talk
about an infinite variety of abstractions, and even of entities in imaginary,
unreal worlds.

Semantics is concerned with the meanings of words and sentences and it

would be an unprofitable digression to get bogged down in questions of what
exists and what doesn’t. To avoid such problems, we adopt a broad interpretation of the
notion referring expression (see Unit 4) so that any expression that can be used to
refer to any entity in the real world or in any imaginary world will be called a referring
expression.

The classic case

is that of the word unicorn. ----
• Do unicorns exist in the real world? Yes / No
• Is it possible to imagine worlds different in certain ways from the world we know actually to exist?
Yes / No
• In fairy tale and science fiction worlds is everything different from the world we know? Yes / No

The notion of universe of discourse is introduced to account for the way in

which language allows us to refer to non-existent things.
 UNIVERSE OF DISCOURSE

Definition
We define the UNIVERSE OF DISCOURSE for any utterance as the
particular world, real or imaginary (or part real, part imaginary), that the
speaker assumes he is talking about at the time.

Example
WORLD
• When an astronomy lecturer, in a serious lecture, states that the Earth revolves
around the Sun, the universe of discourse is, we all assume, the real world (or
universe).
• When I tell my children a bedtime story and say ‘The dragon set fire to the wood
s with his hot breath’, the universe of discourse is not the real world but a fictitio
us world.
 Mother to child: ‘Santa Claus might bring you a toy telephone ’

Santa Claus is a fiction, but the toy telephones he might bring do

actually exist.

So in examples like this we have interaction between fact and

fiction, between real and imaginary worlds.

When two people are ‘arguing at cross-purposes’, they could be

said to be working within partially different universes of discourse.
 WHAT IS DEIXIS?
According to Yule (1996; 9) Deixis means pointing via language.

Deictic word is one of which takes one element of its meaning from the
context or situation (the speaker, the addressee, the time and the place) of the
utterance in which it is used (Hurford, 2007).

The term is borrowed from the Greek word for pointing or indicating with the
use of demonstrative, first and second person pronouns, tense, specific time and
place adverbs like now, here, and a variety of other grammatical features
(Levinson, 1983)
 INTRODUCTION
Any linguistic form used to accomplish “pointing” is called a deictic expression.

Deictic expression = Indexicals

First person singular (the word I is deictic)
“I’ve lost the contract”
“I’ll send you another one”
You
To identify the referent of a referring expression through its
Here spatial or temporal relationship with the situation of utterance.
Today
- You look beautiful
- I’ll meet you here
- You look wonderful today
 DEIXIS
there are in English and other languages certain grammatical devices
called tenses for indicating past, present, and future time which regarded
as deictic.

Time of utterance

“I’ll meet James tomorrow”

Will = future time Tomorrow = the next day

 WHAT EXACTLY IS DEFINITENESS?

Definiteness a feature of a noun phrase selected by a speaker to convey

his assumption that the hearer will be able to identify the
referent of the noun phrase.

- That book (the speaker assumes the hearer can tell which book is being referred to)
- She (the speaker assumes the hearer can tell which person is being referred to)
- The Earth (it is the only thing in a normal universe of discourse known by this name)
 DEFINITENESS

Three main types of definite noun phrase in English

1. Proper names (John, Queen Victoria)

2. Personal pronoun (he, she, it)
3. Phrases introduced by definite determiner (the, that, this)
For example the table, this book, those men

indefinite a man, someone and one

 EXTENSION

Definition:
The EXTENSION of a one-place predicate is the set of all individuals to (partial) which
that predicate can truthfully be applied. It is the set of things which can POTENTIALLY
be referred to by using an expression whose main element is that predicate.

Example
The extension of window is the set of all windows in the universe.
The extension of dog is the set of all dogs in the universe.
The extension of house is the set of all houses.
The extension of red is the set of all red things.
the notion of the extension of a predicate is defined as a set of potential referents,
we are forced to postulate that extensions are relative to all times, past, present, and
future. Thus, the extension of window,for example, includes all past windows, all
present windows, and all future windows.

Predicates are tenseless, i.e. unspecified for past, present, or future.

The original idea of extension was to explain the ability of speakers of a language
to group entities having similar characteristics.
In fact, a speaker does not have a perfectly clear idea e.g. of what is a cat and what is not a cat.
Between obvious cats and obvious non-cats there is a grey area of doubt, as we see in the followin
g sketches.
 PROTOTYPE

Definition
A PROTOTYPE of a predicate is an object which is held to be very or most TYPICAL
member of the kind of object which can be referred to by an expression containing
the predicate.

Example
A man of medium height and average build, between 30 and 50 years old,
with brownish hair, with no particularly distinctive characteristics or defects,
could be a prototype of the predicate man in certain areas of the world. A dwarf or
a hugely muscular body-builder could not be a prototype of the predicate man.
Insert Your Image
(1) bird (3) bird
(2) bird

(1) tree

(2) tree
(1) house (2) house
 The REFERENT of a referring expression is the thing
01 picked out by the use of that expression on a particular
occasion of utterance.

The EXTENSION of a predicate is the complete set of all

02 things which could potentially (i.e. in any possible
utterance) be the referent of a referring expression whose
head constituent is that predicate.

A PROTOTYPE of a predicate is a typical member of its

03 extension.
Thank you