Course 3 Unit 2

Urban agriculture and fertiliser trials

Teacher
Mariska Ronteltap
1
m.ronteltap@unesco-ihe.org
Course 3 Unit 2

Urban agriculture and fertiliser trials

Part A: How to apply ecosan products in agriculture

Part B: Introduction to urban agriculture
Part C: Examples for agricultural reuse research trials
This unit deals with which part of the
sanitation system?
Crop grown with ecosan products as fertiliser (closing the loop)

Part A Part B Part C Part D Part E

House- Treatment Re-use in
hold & storage Agriculture
toilet Collection & Transport
transport
Household Urine, faeces, Treatment Transport of Sale of fertiliser
toilets, but can greywater for faeces sanitised urine and (sanitised human
also include transport and faeces by truck; excreta); irrigation
showers, bath (road-based greywater, treated greywater with treated
tubs, sinks vehicles in storage for transport by pipes greywater
combination urine
with pipes)

3
 Course 3 Unit 2

Course 3 Unit 2

Part A: How to apply ecosan products in

agriculture
Example in Sweden: See video clip with employee at Nacka
Community Greenhouse for flowers and plant production,
where urine is used as a fertiliser, recorded in 2004 as part of
the movie by WASTE (The Human Excreta Index):

mms://mediaserver.ihe.nl/course/video_general/ecosan/human
_excreta11_256kbps.wmv

(this video clip is also on the course DVD)

Applying urine to the soil next to a young

maize plant (Morgan, 2007, p. 86)
4
 Course 3 Unit 2

Multiple-barrier concept to secure safety

in reuse
1. Awareness raising and 4. Limitation to specific
education on hygiene and vegetables and field crops,
reuse aspects or to specific vegetation
2. Adequate treatment for periods, depending on
sanitisation (e.g. storage, treatment
drying, composting)
3. Suitable handling (with
security measures, gloves,
boots, handwashing etc.)

See also Appendix (combination of health Spreading of urine before

protection measures) sowing in Sweden 5
 From: Course 1 Unit 2

Reminder: Nutrient excretion by humans is directly

linked to diet
N
Excreta
Diet
N
P

Rules of thumb for nutrient cycle:

We excrete the same amount of nutrients that we take up in our diet
(except for children who retain a small proportion for growth of bones)
The amount of excreted nutrients by one person is the same amount that
is needed as fertiliser to grow the food for that person
 Such a beautiful well-balanced loop!

Source: Jönsson et at. (2004)

6
 Course 3 Unit 2

Excreta and food production

Basically (same info as on previous slide, just in other words) :

=
Amount of consumed Amount of excreted
plant nutrients per plant nutrients per
person person

 The amount of excreted plant nutrients can be calculated from the food
intake

 If all excreta, biowaste and animal manure are recycled, the

fertility of the arable land can be maintained

Rule of thumb: Distribute the excreta of people on an area

equal to that used for producing food for the people
Source: Jönsson et al. (2004)

7
Source of this slide and the next two: Heeb et al. (2007)
 Reminder: fertiliser macronutrient
production by humans
Nutrient Unit Urine Faeces Total Maize *

Total nitrogen (TN) kg/cap/yr 4 0.55 4.55 5.6

Total phosphorus (TP) kg/cap/yr 0.37 0.18 0.55 0.7

Potassium (K) kg/cap/yr 1 0.4 1.4 1.2

Source: Jönsson et al. (2004), see also lecture on “Characteristics of urine, faeces and
greywater” (Course 1 Unit 2)

* Amount of N, P and K needed (in kg/year) to grow 250 kg of maize (this 250 kg maize is
roughly equal to the food intake of one person per year, see also next slide)

8
 Course 3 Unit 2

Rules of thumb about food production

If all urine is collected, it suffices to fertilise 300 – 400 m2 per person
(for most crops the maximum application rate before risking toxic
effects it at least four times this dosage)
 This would be sufficient to grow about 230 kg of cereal crops per year
 Recommended calorific food intake: 2500 kcal/cap/d (for males)
 Carbohydrates energy density: 4 kcal/g
 One male needs ~ 228 kg carbohydrates per year

But keep in mind:

 need to consider losses of nutrients during agricultural production
 the balances don’t work out so well for societies where the people eat
a lot of (grain-fed) meat – unless the animal manure is also returned to
the land

9
 Guiding principle for fertilisation with
ecosan products

“We are fertilising the soil,

not the plant!”

 ecosan products not to

be used on plants directly
but on the soil in which
the plants are grown

10
Urine application at a research
field at CREPA headquarters in
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

(Photos taken during Refresher

Course on ecosan in October
2006)

11
 Urine is applied in a furrow about 10 cm
away from the plants

Linus Dagerskog, a junior professional of SEI

(Sweden), during his posting at CREPA

12
 Course 3 Unit 2

Role of faeces as an organic fertiliser

High concentrations of P and K
Plant availability of nutrients in faecal matter is lower and
slower than that of the urine nutrients (N and P stems from
undigested matter)
 Organic matter in faeces degrades and organic N and P
become available
Organic matter is beneficial because:
 Improves soil structure
 Increases the water-holding capacity and ion-buffering
capacity of the soil
 Supports soil microorganisms by serving as an energy
source

Source: Jönsson et al. (2004) 13

 Benefits of compost for soil fertility (1/2)

Compost* improves soil structure: An ideal, friable garden soil consists of

airy crumbs in which particles of sand, clay and silt are held together by
humic acid. Compost helps these particles to form.
Compost increases the water-holding capacity of soil:
 While 50 kg of silt holds 12 kg of water and 50 kg of clay holds 25
kg of water, 50 kg of compost holds 100 kg of water.
 A soil rich in compost requires less watering, and plants growing in
compost will better withstand drought.
Compost moderates soil temperatures: Adding compost to soil tends to
keep the soil from heating up or cooling down too rapidly. Soil darkened
through the addition of compost absorbs the light and moderates its
effect on the growing plant and beneficial soil microorganisms.
Compost breaks up organic matter into the basic elements that plants
need: Compost is teeming with microorganisms, which continually
break down organic matter.

* This includes compost made from faeces, faecal sludge and/or organic solid waste (see also
Course 2 Unit 6 (Introduction to composting))
14
 Course 3 Unit 2

Benefits of compost for soil fertility (2/2)

Compost returns to soil what agriculture takes out of it: Compost is made
up of decaying matter, and it includes nearly every chemical a plant
needs, including boron, manganese, iron, copper, and zinc which are
not present in commercial fertilisers.
Compost releases nutrients at the rate plants need them: Compost acts as
a storehouse for nutrients, and slowly releases the nutrients throughout
the growing season as the organic material decomposes in the soil.
The compost layer prevents the surface from drying out, which increases
uptake of nutrients and improves the growth of plants.
Compost can neutralise soil toxins and heavy metals: Compost binds
metals such as cadmium and lead, making it difficult for plants to
absorb them.
Compost reduces pests and disease: Compost improves plants' ability to
withstand attacks by disease and insects by enhancing naturally
occurring microbial agents. Furthermore, it reduces the effects of soil-
borne pathogens and reduces the amount of plant parasites and
nematodes in the soil.

Source: Esrey et al. (2001), p. 47

15
 Visual evidence for agricultural benefits
of ecosan products
compost
improved soil
faeces & urine urine none
untreated soil

Maize (corn) after one week without water

It is this sort of evidence that will convince people (especially farmers) of

the benefits of ecosan!

16
Source: GTZ presentations
 without ecosan with ecosan Course 3 Unit 2
products products

The dark green colour comes from more nitrogen uptake

17
Source: Morgan (2007), p. 84
Increased yield for maize (corn) with ecosan products

18
Source: Morgan (2007), p. 84
 Effect of urine treatment on green leafy vegetables
(dilution 5:1 (2 L urine and 10 L water); watering and urine application can be done together)

Rape yield increased by a factor of 5 after
treatment with urine twice a week (after 28
days)
Diluted urine was applied during the
growth phase
Spinach yield increased by a factor of 3.4 after
treatment with urine twice a week (after 28 days)
Source: Peter Morgan on EcosanRes Discussion Forum, 8 Feb
2006 (Zimbabwe), see also Morgan (2007), p. 81 & 82
19
 How to apply sanitised urine as a fertiliser (1/2)
• Urine is a quick-acting nitrogen-rich
complete fertiliser
• Urine is best utilised as a direct fertiliser
for N-demanding crops and leafy
vegetables (e.g. spinach, cauliflower,
ornamental flowers and maize)
• Urine should be applied close to, on or
incoporated into the soil
• Urine may act as an insecticide/fungicide
 E.g. killed banana weevils in Tanzania
and Uganda (source: Dave on
Ecosanres Discussion Forum, 18
August 2006 + answers from others)

20
 Course 3 Unit 2

How to apply sanitised urine as a fertiliser (2/2)

• Apply nutrients once or twice per growing season (this means

urine storage is needed)
• Apply prior to or at the time of sowing/planting
• Fertilisation should only take place up to 2/3 or ¾ of the time
between sowing and harvest
• Waiting period of 1 month between fertilisation and harvest is
recommended for all crops eaten raw
• Whether urine is best applied diluted with water or undiluted is
still being debated at present

Source: Jönsson et al. (2004)

For further information on this topic see also Morgan (2007), Section 11
21
 How to apply sanitised faecal matter as a fertiliser
Faecal matter is rich in P, K and Avoid faeces as fertiliser for
organic matter growing vegetables which are
Organic matter and ash, which are eaten raw
often added to the faeces, increase Must be applied at a depth where
the buffering capacity and pH of the the soil stays moist (dissolve P to
soil make available to plants)
Should be applied and mixed into
the soil before cultivation starts
Application rate can be based on
rates for P-based fertilisers

For further information on this topic

see also Morgan (2007), Section 10
22
 “Dried faeces are thrown into the seed hole.” (dried faeces from UDD toilet)
Source of this slide and next: NGO training, Visayas, Philippines (see powerpoint file under Assigned
Reading). Provided by Glenda Sol.
 “Some people prefer to use a shovel for moving dried faeces.”
Note: It may be recommended to wear gloves and boots when performing this type of
work (multiple-barrier approach)
 Summary for using ecosan products (sanitised urine
and faeces) in agriculture
Aspect Sanitised urine Sanitised faeces

Main agricultural Addition of nitrogen (and some P&K) Rich in organic matter (and
benefit of it some P&K)
Basis for its application Nitrogen load/uptake which crops Phosphorus load or none
rate (as rule of require (over-fertilisation hardly
thumb) possible)
Where to apply Close to, on or incorporated into the Mix into soil at depth where
soil soil is still moist

When to apply it Prior to sowing or at time of sowing; Before cultivation starts

not during last month before
harvest

How to apply it Pure or diluted with water; Manually (with shovel) is

Watering can or via drip irrigation; most common
manure spreading equipment

25
 Course 3 Unit 2

Reuse of sanitised greywater in

agriculture

Treated greywater can be used to irrigate crops

Greywater contains some P (from detergents) but little N
See literature on treated wastewater reuse (but greywater of
ecosan approach would have lower volume and much lower
pathogen content than domestic wastewater)
See also literature on irrigation
For large-scale irrigated agriculture the quanitty of greywater
available may be insufficient (depending on the number of
households contributing)
 Remember: irrigation in agriculture is a major consumer of water

Note: keep in mind possible impact of salinity and sodicity (sodium content) contained in greywater on
soil structure (see also MSc research project by George Munggai in Kenya – in Extra Materials)
26
 Example for greywater reuse in low-income areas of
Lima (Peru) to grow plants to feed rabbits, which are
then eaten by the families

See video clip on this topic, recorded in 2004 as part of the movie by WASTE (The Human
Excreta Index):

mms://mediaserver.ihe.nl/course/video_general/ecosan/human_excreta6_256kbps.wmv

(this video clip is also on the course DVD)

27
Hormones and pharmaceutical
residues in ecosan products (mainly
urine) can be considered a less urgent
problem for reuse because…

 Vegetation and soil microbes can degrade hormones and

pharmaceuticals
 It is far better to recycle urine and faeces (with their hormones and
pharmaceuticals) to arable land than to flush them into recipient
waters
 Retention time of wastewater in conventional WWTPs is too short to
degrade these substances
• Pharmaceutical substances have been detected for decades in
groundwater of Berlin which is Berlin’s source of drinking water
 Aquatic systems have never before been exposed to mammal
hormones in large quantities
Source: Jönsson et al. (2004) 28
 Four aspects to consider regarding pharmaceutical
residues (PhaR) release via urine fertilisation (1/2)
1. Its composition depends of people urine is coming from. Urine of hospitals is not
recommended to be used in agriculture. But still source separated collection of
urine in hospitals could be an advantage to eliminate PhaR from wastewater
more effectively. More and more details regarding appropriate techniques
become available (Tettenborn et al. (2006)). In contrary, urine collected in small
households and used within them is not considered to impose any risks.

2. It is important to store urine over some time. Due to time and pH changes via
storage PhaR are destroyed up to a certain degree (Strompen, S. et al. (2003)).
Additionally, certain PhaR are sensitive regarding sunlight and destroyed via
photodegradation (Buser, H. et al. (1998)).

3. Soil ecoystems can take more than aquatic ecosystems. They are much more
stable and degrade PhaR to a certain extend in soil as was shown in
investigations dealing with veterinary pharmaceuticals in animal manure (Grote,
M. et al. (2004)).

4. Additionally, timing and type of crops fertilized with urine is important.

 

29
 Continued from last slide
Regarding the risk of PhaR release via urine fertilization the following aspects should be Still many
aspects are not discussed finally and further investigations are needed to clarify remaining
questions. But source separation systems are a promising option to avoid the release of PhaR
into the environment. Additionally, a lot of fruitful effects should be possible by combining source
separation and conventional wastewater treatment systems. E.g. by separating urine a more
effective treatment of pharmaceuticals in this separated stream becomes possible and
wastewater treatment plant is disburdened by loads of nitrogen and other nutrients which are
hold back at the same time. The ideal situation has to be designed according to local conditions.
---------------
 
Source: Hammer, M. & Otterpohl, R. (2006): Pharmaceutical residues in the environment –
advantages and disadvantages of conventional wastewater treatment and ecological sanitation
systems. In: Proceedings of 4th International Water Forum "AQUA Ukraine - 2006"and
International Forum "Ecological Technologies - 2006", September 19th - 21st, 2006. Kiev,
Ukraine, pp. 474-477.
 
Website from where you can get the full paper + many more: http://www.tu-
harburg.de/aww/publikationen/index.html

(See also discussion on EcosanRes discussion forum 17 Oct 2007)

30
 Another point on the question of pharmaceutical
residues and hormones in urine
We currently apply ample animal manure to the land (e.g. the
Netherlands, Europe)
This animal manure also contains hormones and pharmaceutical
residues because of our intensive animal husbandry practices
For some reason, nobody seems to question the risks involved in
that (??)

See also the paper from Hammer and Clemens (2007) on this topic, under Extra Materials

31
 What if people are still really worried about eating food
fertilised with human excreta?

You can use human excreta also on other types of crops,

which are not eaten by humans, e.g.
 Flowers
 Potted plants
 Fibre-producing plants (e.g. hemp)
 Fodder crops
 Oil-producing plants, e.g. olive trees
 Trees

32
 Course 3 Unit 2

Course 3 Unit 2

Part B: Introduction to urban agriculture

33
 What is the definition of “urban”?
The definition of “urban” is not straight forward and varies from
country to country
 Some countries use a minimum number of population (e.g.
Zambia: > 5000; Senegal: > 10,000) or a minimum number
of dwellings (Peru: > 100)
UNStats definition: 75% of economic activities are non-agricultural
European countries: the area based on urban-type land use, not
allowing any gaps

Source: MSc thesis de Silva (2007), p. 8 – provided in Extra Materials

34
Urban agriculture
Definition = production of crops
and/or livestock on land, which
is administratively and legally
zoned for urban uses
 can be “illegal cultivation of
public land” Yemen: crops in old Sana'a town
http://www.fao.org/NEWS/FOTOFILE/PH9901-e.htm
 there may be a reluctant
tolerance of urban  Sometimes residents can apply
agriculture (recognition of for permission to use designated
increased pressures on the land for the cultivation of crops
urban poor) Source: Gumbo (2005), p. 11 & 135
See Chapter 1 and Chapter 3 under Extra Reading

35
 Should urban areas have agriculture?

One MSc student once said to me: “If agriculture is

practised in an urban area, this area should no longer
be called “urban”!?” – Is there a contradiction
between the terms “urban” and “agriculture”?

What do you think?

36
 Urban agriculture activities
• In cities such as Lusaka and
Dar es Salaam as much as
50% of the food is produced
within the city
• Land types used, e.g. in
Harare, Zimbabwe: railway
reserve, moderate slope, steep
slope, roadside, seasonally
waterlogged drainage ways

http://www.thefoodproject.org/agriculture/Internal1.asp?id=97

Source: Gumbo (2005), p. 12 & 136

See Chapter 1 and Chapter 3 under Extra Materials
37
 Course 3 Unit 2

On-plot and off-plot urban agriculture

– Example Harare, Zimbabwe
Parameter On-plot urban Off-plot urban
agriculture agriculture
Type of water used Piped municipal Rainwater only
supply
Main fertiliser used Organic fertiliser Mineral fertiliser

Main crop grown Leafy vegetables Maize

Source: Gumbo (2005), p. 136

See Chapter 3 under Extra Materials

38
 Example cities in developing countries where urban
agriculture is well documented
 Accra (Ghana)
 Lima (Peru)
 Kampala (Uganda)

Further information on these and other cities:

See also the EU project SWITCH (led by UNESCO-IHE), where
one work package is entitled “Use of urban water (fresh and
wastewater) for urban agriculture and other livelihood
opportunities”.
http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/
SWITCH = Sustainable Water Management Improves Tomorrow's
Cities' Health
Also see the literature review of the MSc thesis of de Silva (2006),
p. 43 – 63 (for Accra and Lima)

39
 40 to
Urban agriculture or allotment garden in Ede, The Netherlands (note proximity
railway line), January 2007
 Resource Centre for Urban
Agriculture in the Philipines

The Periurban Vegetable Project (PUVeP) is a research and outreach

unit of Xavier University College of Agriculture, Cagayan de Oro
City, which started its operation in October 1997.
PUVeP provides research, training and education related to urban
natural resources management and food production in the city
The following 23 slides were kindly provided by Robert Holmer,
director of the PUVeP, from his presentation at the GTZ Ecosan
Symposium 26-27 October 2006 in Eschborn, Germany

41
 Course 3 Unit 2

Allotment Gardens
Community gardens are defined as gardens where
people share the basic resources of land, water, and
sunlight. This definition includes both allotment and
common gardens.
 Allotment gardens: the parcels are cultivated
individually
 Common gardens: the overall area is tended
collectively by a group of people

(in German: “Schreber-Garten”, from a Dr. Schreber in the 19th century!)

42
 43
Allotment Garden in UK, Germany and Switzerland
 Course 3 Unit 2

Reichstag, Berlin (around 1900 shortly after it was built)

44
 45
Reichstag, Berlin (April 1945) – end of World War II
Reichstag, Berlin (spring 1946): Urban agriculture in the centre of Berlin (people were starving)
46
 Course 3 Unit 2

Reichstag, Berlin (spring 1946) 47

 Course 3 Unit 2

Reichstag building, Berlin (2006) – no more urban agriculture in this particular48

area of Berlin (but allotment gardens are still popular in Berlin!)
 Case Study: Allotment gardens in
Cagayan de Oro, Phillipines

Seven areas in the city made legally available to 99

urban poor families for production of crops
 Two of them are located within the premises of
public elementary schools
Integrates aspects of solid waste management,
ecological sanitation, participatory land use planning
and community organizing

49
 Methodology for pilot allotment gardens

Minimum of 8 individual allotment units with 288 m2 each (gross 3000 m2)
Area is fenced, with entrance, bodega and water supply
Surrounding areas can be planted with border crops
Contains a compost heap for biodegradable household wastes and urine-
diverting dry (UDD) “ecosan toilet”
50
 Course 3 Unit 2

Methodology: Ecosan Toilet

Establishment

Construction of Ecosan Toilets in 2005

51
 Course 3 Unit 2

Methodology: Ecosan Toilet

Establishment

Inauguration of Ecosan Toilets in presence of city officials and

representatives of the German Technical Cooperation
52
 Reuse of Ecosan Products

Transportation of urine Urine application Application of urine

container through drip irrigation through furrowing
system 53
 Reuse of Ecosan Products

Sweetcorn fertilised with urine Yield increases up to 30 %

Larger cobs (3-4 cobs/kg
compared to 5-6 cobs/kg)
54
Results: Allocation of Vegetables produced in
Allotment Gardens

Allocation of Vegetables %
Sold 68

Own consumption 25

Given away to friends/relatives 6

Place where vegetables are sold %

At the garden 94

In the neighborhood 9

In the market 0

55
 Course 3 Unit 2

Results: Vegetable Consumption Levels

Consumption level of vegetables after Allotment Garden has been established %

Increased 94
Same level 6

Percentage of increase in consumption level

50% 13
75% 6
100% 75
No comment 6
How would be your vegetable consumption level if the AGP will stop its operation?
Will consume the same amount 19
Will consume less 81

56
 Results: Perception towards reuse of Ecosan
products (prior to implementation)
Willingness to eat vegetables fertilized with Gardeners Non-gardeners
urine (%) (%)

Yes 92 56

No 8 44
Willingness to eat vegetables fertilized with
faeces
Yes 92 62

No 8 38

57
 Factors to decide suitability for allotment
gardens
 Water resources availability (the closer the better)
 Soil organic matter content (the higher the better)
 Proximity to main road (the further away the better)
 Proximity to houses/buildings

These factors are further illustrated on the next four slides

58
 Identification of
AG sites using
GIS:

Water resources
for irrigation

AG = allotment garden

59
Identification of
AG sites using
GIS:

Water resources
for irrigation

60
 Course 3 Unit 2

Identification of
AG sites using
GIS:

Water resources
for irrigation

61
Identification of
AG sites using
GIS:

Water resources
for irrigation

62
 Course 3 Unit 2

Course 3 Unit 2

Part C: Examples for agricultural reuse

research trials

Example 1: Zimbabwe
Example 2: Valley View
University, Accra, Ghana

63
 Example 1: Work of Mvuramanzi Trust in
Harare, Zimbabwe

THE EFFECT OF USING HUMANURE AND URINE ON

MAIZE PRODUCTION AND WATER PRODUCTIVITY

BY EDWARD GUZHA

Third ecological sanitation conference 23-26 May 2005

Example from Zimbabwe

DURBAN South Africa

Available from:
http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/guzha.pdf
Also placed under Extra Materials
64
 Course 3 Unit 2

Background of the study

Global nutrient depletion
Over used soils in Southern Africa
Deteriorating cereal production in Southern Africa
Increased cost of commercial fertilisers
Nutrient inflow into surface and ground water bodies
as sewage
Example from Zimbabwe

65
 Objectives

Assesses effect of using Humanure and

Ecofert on crop production
Investigate the effect of human excreta on
water productivity
Example from Zimbabwe

Humanure = dried sanitised faeces

Ecofert = urine

66
 Humanure in Toilet Vault
Example from Zimbabwe

67
People use old newspapers for anal cleansing
 Study design
Two factor randomized 10 x 10 block design looking at
nutrient and water
Nutrient being assessed on four levels:
 Treatment 1: the control (no fertilizer)
 Treatment 2: commercial fertilizer
 Treatment 3: ecofert
 Treatment 4: humanure and ecofert
Ecofert and water being assessed on two levels:
Example from Zimbabwe

 Rain fed and

 Supplementary irrigation

68
 Course 3 Unit 2

Methods
Land preparation was done using ox drawn plough
Four plots:
 Plot 1: Control plot, no addition of nutrients
 Plot 2: Artificial fertiliser treatment: Compound D
(NPK 7:18:7) as basal fertiliser and ammonium
nitrate as top dressing; 6 g per crop
 Plot 3: Urine (ecofert) added at 100 mL per crop
as basal treatment, and 100 mL as the top
dressing after 4 weeks when crop was at knee
level
 Plot 4: Faecal matter (humanure) applied as
basal fertiliser at 80 g per planting station, urine
applied at 100 mL per plant
Example from Zimbabwe

Growth monitoring done at 4 weeks interval

69
 Findings: Crop growth parameters
Leaf length Leaf width
120 10

Leaf width (mm)

leaf length in (mm)

9
100 8
80 7
6
60 5
40 4
3
20 2
0 1
0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Tre a t me nt
Treatm ents

175 Crop height

Example from Zimbabwe

Crop height (mm)

170
165
160 Legend
155
1: no fertilizer
150
145 2: artificial fertilizer
140
135
3: urine
130 4: humanure and urine
125
1 2 3 4

Tr e a t m e n t s 70
 Findings continued…
Maize yield Gross margins
4500 300
4000
Average yield 250
3500

Gross margin in US$

3000 200
Yield kg/ha

2500
2000 150
1500
100
1000
500 50
0
1 2 3 4 0
1 2 3 4
Treatments
Treatm ents

Incomes
Example from Zimbabwe

Legend
1: no fertilizer
2: commercial fertilizer
3: urine
4: humanure and urine

71
 Edward Guzha with maize grown with ecosan products
Example from Zimbabwe

72
 Course 3 Unit 2
Conclusions – 1/3
Humanure and ecofert improves soil fertility considerably
 Water holding capacity is improved by about 4%
 It can help to improve crop resilience to mid season dry
spells
Humanure + Ecofert improves maize crop production with
yields ranging 3500 kg/ha compared to 1500 kg/ha for a
crop without a nutrient amendment
Example from Zimbabwe

(ecofert = urine)

73
 Conclusions – 2 / 3
In dollar terms a farmer earns more money per volume
of water to produce a unit of grain by adopting the
use of humanure and ecofert as alternative crop
nutrient.
 A farmer who uses humanure + ecofert gets about
US$ 96 cents/ha compared to anything down to
zero for a farmer who does not use any nutrient
Example from Zimbabwe

74
 Conclusions – 3 / 3
Humanure + ecofert improve water productivity by
above 10% in rain-fed maize production ensuring
more crop per drop of water.
 Water consumption for a crop where humanure +
ecofert is used, is around 1300 m3/ton compared
to a situation where nothing was used which is
about 2300 m3/ton.
Example from Zimbabwe

 More crop per drop! (more ton maize per m3 water

used)

75
 Course 3 Unit 2

Example 2:
Valley View University (VVU) in Accra Ghana

I have copied two slides here from the presentation by Germer and
Sauerborn (2006)
The full presentation is available under Assigned Reading
See also their website: www.uni-hohenheim.de/respta

76
 Agricultural production units at VVU

Tree plantations

Urine

Fecal compost

Sanitary grey water

Rain fed farming

Kitchen grey water

Fruit orchards

Vegetable
gardens
77
Recycling Nutrients to Enhance Agricultural Productivity — Valley View University in Accra, Ghana / Germer, J. & Sauerborn, J.
Nutrient efficiency – urine versus mineral
fertilisers and manure (2004)

Maize
Very low precipitation
Distinct difference of vegetative
growth between treatments 250
Urine
Control
Poultry manure
200 Cow manure
Mineral fertiliser

Plant height in cm
Mineral fertiliser plus water

150

100
 Severe draught stress
 Plant height development
50

0
2 4 6 8 10

Weeks after sowing

78
Recycling Nutrients to Enhance Agricultural Productivity — Valley View University in Accra, Ghana / Germer, J. & Sauerborn, J.
 References used in this presentation (1)
Esrey, S., Andersson, I., Hillers, A., Sawyer, R. (2001) Closing the loop – ecological
sanitation for food security, Swedish International Development Cooperation
Agency (SIDA). Available: www.ecosanres.org *
Gumbo, B. (2005) Short-cutting the phosphorus cycle in urban ecosystems. PhD
Thesis, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands **
Heeb, J., Jenssen, P., Gnanakan, K. & K. Conradin (2007): ecosan curriculum 2.0. In
cooperation with: Norwegian University of Life Sciences, ACTS Bangalore, Swiss
Agency for Development and Cooperation, German Agency for Technical
Cooperation and the International Ecological Engineering Society. Partially available
from www.seecon.ch and http://www2.gtz.de/dokumente/oe44/ecosan/cb/en-m23-
ecosan-human-dignity-lecture-2006.ppt **
Jönsson, H., Richert Stintzing, A., Vinneras, B., and Salomon, E. (2004) Guidelines on
use of urine and faeces in crop production. Report 2004-2, Ecosanres, Stockholm,
www.ecosanres.org **

* Also under Assigned Reading for this course unit

** Also under Extra Materials for this course unit
79
 References used in this presentation (2)
Hammer, M. and Clemens, J. (2007) A tool to evaluate the fertiliser value and the
environmental impact of substrates from wastewater treatment. Advanced Sanitation
Conference, Aachen, March 2007 **
Morgan, P. (2007) Toilets That Make Compost - Low-cost, sanitary toilets that produce
valuable compost for crops in an African context, Stockholm Environment Institute,
Ecosanres Programme, Stockholm, Sweden. Available: www.ecosanres.org *
WHO (2006) Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater: Volume 4,
Excreta and greywater use in agriculture. World Health Organisation, Geneva,
available: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/gsuww/en/ *

Website of the Periurban Vegetable Project in the Phillipines:

http://puvep.xu.edu.ph/index.php

* Also under Assigned Reading for this course unit

** Also under Extra Materials for this course unit 80
*** Also under Extra Materials for one of the other course units: Course 4 Unit 2
 Course 3 Unit 2

Appendix

Reminder: WHO Guidelines from 2006

In order to better package the guidelines for appropriate
audiences, the third edition of the Guidelines for the safe use
of wastewater, excreta and greywater is presented in four
separate volumes:
Volume 1, Policy and regulatory aspects
Volume 2, Wastewater use in agriculture
Volume 3, Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture
Volume 4, Excreta and greywater use in agriculture

All volumes could be of relevance in the ecosan context. I have first

read volume 4, and then also had a look at volume 2. In the following
slides I have copied some key bits of information for you.
81
 WHO Guidelines for reuse: overview
Download from this website:
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/gsuww/e
n/
WHO Guidelines have to be converted into national guidelines
Guidelines to stipulate processes known to achieve adequate
sanitisation
Best practise guidance in risk assessment and management
Describe possible risk management interventions for the various
phases from generation of waste(water) to consumption of
products
Appendix

82
 Explanation about DALY 1/3
Appendix

Source: WHO (2006) Volume 2, p. 11

83
See also the powerpoint presentation by Nick Ashbolt, Australia, which explains DALY in more detail
(see Extra Materials)
 Explanation about DALY 2/3
The disability-adjusted life year (DALY) is a measure of overall disease burden. Originally developed by the
World Health Organization, it is becoming increasingly common in the field of public health and health impact
assessment (HIA). It "extends the concept of potential years of life lost due to premature death...to include
equivalent years of ‘healthy’ life lost by virtue of being in states of poor health or disability." [2] In so doing,
mortality and morbidity are combined into a single, common metric.
Traditionally, health liabilities were expressed using one measure: (expected or average number of) Years of
Life Lost (YLL). This measure does not take the impact of disability into account, which can be expressed by:
Years Lived with Disability (YLD). DALYs are calculated by taking the sum of these two components. In a
formula:
DALY = YLL + YLD.[3]
The DALY relies on an acceptance that the most appropriate measure of the effects of chronic illness is time,
both time lost due to premature death and time spent disabled by disease. One DALY, therefore, is equal to
one year of healthy life lost. Japanese life expectancy statistics are used as the standard for measuring
premature death, as the Japanese have the longest life expectancies. [4]
Looking at the burden of disease via DALYs can reveal surprising things about a population's health. For
example, the 1990 WHO report indicated that 5 of the 10 leading causes of disability were psychiatric
conditions. Psychiatric and neurologic conditions account for 28% of all years lived with disability, but only
1.4% of all deaths and 1.1% of years of life lost. Thus, psychiatric disorders, while traditionally not regarded as
a major epidemiological problem, are shown by consideration of disability years to have a huge impact on
populations.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALY
Appendix

84
 Explanation on DALY’s in other words 3/3
The Disability Adjusted Life Year or DALY is a health gap measure
that extends the concept of potential years of life lost due to
premature death (PYLL) to include equivalent years of ‘healthy’
life lost by virtue of being in states of poor health or disability.
The DALY combines in one measure the time lived with
disability and the time lost due to premature mortality.

One DALY can be thought of as one lost year of ‘healthy’ life and
the burden of disease as a measurement of the gap between
current health status and an ideal situation where everyone
lives into old age free of disease and disability.
Appendix

85
 Combinations of health protection measures (scenarios A to H)

Source: WHO
(2006) Volume 2,
p. 65
Appendix

86
 Examples of hazard barriers for wastewater use in agriculture
(same principle as multi-barrier approach)

Source: WHO
(2006) Volume
2, p. 17
Appendix

87
 Course 3 Unit 2

In conventional sanitation systems, biosolids are also

often applied to land

Common elements with ecosan Differences to ecosan approach:

approach:
 Biosolids also originate from
human excreta (a side product
of conventional WWTPs;
biosolids are also called
“sewage sludge”)
 The fertiliser qualities of
biosolids have generally been
recognised
Appendix
 Land application is more seen
as a disposal pathway
 Biosolids may contain high
concentrations of toxic organic
substances and heavy metals
(from industrial wastewater)
 Many countries have detailed
legislation (e.g. in the USA,
Class A and Class B biosolids;
refers to quality differences with
respect to pathogen
concentrations)

Dried biosolids from centralised

wastewater treatment plant in Brisbane, 88
Australia (2001)