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Chapter2 K57 S
Chapter2 K57 S
Categorial Numerical
Data Data
Row Is
Major Count Tally:
Category |||| ||||
Accounting 130
|||| ||||
Economics 20
Management 50
Total 200
Bar Chart
(for an Investor’s Portfolio)
Investor's Portfolio
Savings
CD
Bonds
Stocks
0 10 20 30 40 50
Amount in K$
Bar Chart
Bonds Percentages
(Variables are Qualitative) are rounded to
29% the nearest
percent
Pie Chart
40% 90%
bar 70%
chart 30%
shows 60%
25%
% 50%
invested 20%
40%
in each
15%
category 30% Axis for line
10%
20%
graph
shows
5% 10%
cumulative
0% 0% % invested
Stocks Bonds Savings CD
VILFREDO PARETO
(1843–1923)
The “Vital
Few”
Pareto Diagram
No
Errors Errors Total
Small 50.75% 30.77% 47.50%
Amount
Medium 29.85% 61.54% 35.00%
Amount
Large 19.40% 7.69% 17.50%
Amount
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
S avings
CD
B onds
S toc k s
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Categorial Numerical
Data Data
Relative
Class Frequency Frequency Percentage
10 but under 20 3 .15 15
20 but under 30 6 .30 30
30 but under 40 5 .25 25
40 but under 50 4 .20 20
50 but under 60 2 .10 10
Total 20 1 100
Frequency Distribution:
Discrete Data
The following data record the number of
children in the families of the 47 workers in a
company:
1 1 3 2 0 2 0 1 2 2 1 3
5 2 4 0 0 2 4 1 1 2 2 0
3 0 0 2 1 3 6 0 2 1 0 3
2 2 2 1 0 0 1 1 3 1 4
Frequency distribution table
Number of children Number of workers
in family
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Frequency Distribution:
Discrete Data
Discrete data: possible values are countable
Number of days
Example: An read
Frequency
advertiser asks 0 44
200 customers 1 24
how many days 2 18
per week they 3 16
read the daily 4 20
newspaper. 5 22
6 26
7 30
Total 200
Relative Frequency
Relative Frequency: What proportion is in each category?
Number of days Relative
Frequency
read Frequency
44
0 44 .22 .22
1 24 .12
200
2 18 .09 22% of the
people in the
3 16 .08
sample report
4 20 .10 that they read
5 22 .11 the newspaper
0 days per week
6 26 .13
7 30 .15
Total 200 1.00
NOTE
For developing frequency and relative frequency
distributions for discrete data
(1)List all possible values of the variables. If the
variable is quantitatives, order the possible values
from low and high.
(2) Count the number of occurrences at each value
of the variable and place this value in a column
labeled “frequency”
(3)Determine the variable frequencies
Frequency Distribution:
Continuous Data
Lower Upper
limit limit
Distribution classes
Class widths (class lengths):
- continuous data: are the numerical differences
between lower and upper class limits.
- discrete data: are the numerical differences
between the lower limit of one class and the lower
limit of the immediately following class
Class mid-points: are situated in the centre of the
classes.
Distribution classes
Open-ended class: Classes
- A class without a/an < 10
lower/upper limit.
- Usually used for the first 10-15
class which has no defined
lower limit and/or the last 15-20
class which has no defined
upper limit
>=20
Grouping Data by Classes
Sort raw data in ascending order:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Find range: 58 - 12 = 46
Select number of classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 20)
Compute class width: 10 (46/5 then round off)
Determine class boundaries:10, 20, 30, 40, 50
Compute class midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55
Count observations & assign to classes
Frequency Distribution Example
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Frequency Distribution
Frequency
2
empty classes 1.5
1
Can give a poor indication of 0.5
12
4
8
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
More
classes Temperature
12
Few (Wide class intervals) 10
Frequency
6
much and yield a blocky 4
distribution 2
7 6
6 5
Frequen cy
5 4 No Gaps
4 3
3 2
Between
2 Bars
1 0 0
0
5 15 25 35 45 55 More
Class Boundaries
Class Midpoints
The Histogram
Number of peaks
Skewness
clear peaks.
Example
Unusual features
Numerical Data 41, 24, 32, 26, 27, 27, 30, 24, 38, 21
Tables Polygons
Cummulative and relative cummulative
frequency distribution
A summary of a set of data that displays the
number of observations with values less than or
equal to the upper limit of each of its classes.
A summary of a set of data that displays the
proportion of observations with values less than
or equal to the upper limit of each of its classes.
Relative frequency histograms
and ogives
Ogive
100
80
60
40
20
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
5 15 25 35 45 55 More
Class Midpoints
The Polygon
A percentage polygon is formed by having the
midpoint of each class represent the data in that
class and then connecting the sequence of
midpoints at their respective class percentages.
The cumulative percentage polygon, or ogive,
displays the variable of interest along the X axis,
and the cumulative percentages along the Y axis.
Useful when there are two or more groups to
compare.
The Polygon
Useful When Comparing Two or More Groups
The Percentage Polygon
Line Charts and Scatter Diagrams
Line charts show values of one variable
vs. time
Time is traditionally shown on the horizontal axis
1988 4.14
1989 4.82 4
1990 5.40
1991 4.21 3
1992 3.01
1993 2.99
2
1994 2.56
1
1995 2.83
1996 2.95 0
1997 2.29 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
1998 1.56
1999 2.21 Year
2000 3.36
2001 2.85
2002 1.58
Scatter Diagram Example
29 146 150
33 160 100
38 167
50
42 170
50 188 0
55 195 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
60 200 Volume per Day
Types of Relationships
Linear Relationships
Y Y
X X
Types of Relationships
(continued)
Curvilinear Relationships
Y Y
X X
Types of Relationships
(continued)
No Relationship
Y Y
X X
Summary
END OF CHAPTER 2
Seven Basic Tools of Quality Control
1. Process Flowcharts
2. Brainstorming
3. Fishbone Diagram
4. Histogram
5. Trend Charts
6. Scatter Plots
7. Statistical Process
Control Charts
Seven Basic Tools of Quality Control
(continued)
x
Seven Basic Tools of Quality
Control
(continued)
time