ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 13e

CHAPTER 4:
Biodiversity and
Evolution
 Core Case Study: Why Are
Amphibians Vanishing? (1)
• Habitat loss and fragmentation
• Prolonged drought
• Increased ultraviolet radiation
• Parasites
• Viral and fungal diseases
 Core Case Study: Why Are
Amphibians Vanishing? (2)
• Pollution
• Climate change
• Overhunting
• Nonnative predators and competitors
• 33% of all amphibian species face
extinction
Fig. 4-1, p. 61
 4-1 What Is Biodiversity and
Why Is It Important?
• Concept 4-1 The biodiversity found in
genes, species, ecosystems, and
ecosystem processes is vital to
sustaining life on earth.
 Biodiversity (1)
• Species diversity
• A set of individuals that can mate and
produce fertile offspring
• 8-100 million species total; likely 10-14
million
• 2 million species identified
• ~50% in endangered tropical rainforests
 Biodiversity (2)
• Genetic diversity
• Ecosystem diversity
– Biomes
• Distinct climate
• Certain species, especially vegetation
• Functional diversity
Fig. 4-2, p. 61
Functional Diversity Ecological Diversity
The biological and chemical processes such as energy The variety of terrestrial and
flow and matter recycling needed for the survival of species, aquatic ecosystems found in
communities, and ecosystems. an area or on the earth.

Genetic Diversity Species Diversity

The variety of genetic material The number and abundance of species
within a species or a population. present in different communities
Fig. 4-2, p. 61
Fig. 4-3, p. 61
Fig. 4-4, p. 63
 Average annual precipitation
100-125 cm (40-50 in.)
75-100 cm (30-40 in.)
50-75 cm (20-30 in.)
25-50 cm (10-20 in.)
below-25 cm (0-10 in.)

Denver Baltimore

San Francisco

St. Louis
Las Vegas

Coastal Sierra Great Rocky Great Mississippi Appalachian

mountain Nevada American Mountains Plains River Valley Mountains
ranges Desert

Coastal chaparral Coniferous Desert Coniferous Prairie Deciduous

and scrub forest forest grassland forest
Fig. 4-4, p. 63
 Science Focus: Insects
• Around for ~400 million years
• Bad reputation
• Useful to humans and ecosystems
• Vital roles in sustaining life
– Pollinators
– Natural pest control
– Renewing soils
Fig. 4-A, p. 62
Fig. 4-A, p. 62
 4-2 How Does the Earth’s Life
Change over Time?
• Concept 4-2A The scientific theory of evolution
explains how life on earth changes over time
through changes in the genes of populations.

• Concept 4-2B Populations evolve when genes

mutate and give some individuals genetic traits
that enhance their abilities to survive and to
produce offspring with these traits (natural
selection).
 Theory of Evolution
• Fossils
– Mineralized and petrified remains
– Skeletons, bones, and shells
– Leaves and seeds
– Impressions in rocks
– Fossil record incomplete: ~1% of all species
• Charles Darwin, On the Origin of
Species, 1859
Population Changes over Time
• Populations evolve by becoming
genetically different over time
• Genetic variability – mutations
– Random changes in DNA molecules in
genes
– Can occur spontaneously
– External agents: radiation
– Can create a heritable trait
 Natural Selection
• Adaptive traits - genetically favorable traits
that increase the probability to survive and
reproduce
• Trait – heritable and lead to differential
reproduction
• Faced with environmental change
– Adapt through evolution
– Migrate
– Become extinct
 Evolution through Natural
Selection Summarized
• Genes mutate, individuals are selected,
and populations evolve such that they are
better adapted to survive and reproduce
under existing environmental conditions.
Fig. 4-5, p. 65
(a) (b) (c) (d)

A group of bacteria, Most of the normal The genetically resistant Eventually the
including genetically bacteria die bacteria start multiplying resistant strain
resistant ones, are replaces all or most of
exposed to an the strain affected by
antibiotic the antibiotic

Normal bacterium Resistant bacterium

Fig. 4-5, p. 65
A group of bacteria, Eventually the
including genetically resistant strain
resistant ones, are The genetically replaces the strain
exposed to an Most of the normal resistant bacteria affected by
antibiotic bacteria die start multiplying the antibiotic

Normal Resistant
bacterium bacterium

Stepped Art
Fig. 4-5, p. 83
 Adaptation through Natural
Selection Has Limits
• Humans unlikely to evolve and have skin
that’s not harmed by UV radiation

1. Desired trait must already be in the gene

pool.
2. Must have high reproductive capacity so
adaptive traits can be spread rapidly
 Three Myths about Evolution
through Natural Selection Refuted
1. “Survival of the fittest” does not mean
“survival of the strongest”
2. Organisms don’t develop traits just
because they would be useful: giraffes
and long necks
3. There is no grand plan of nature to
create more perfectly adapted species –
no trend toward genetic perfection
 Science Focus: How Did We
Become Such a Powerful Species?
• Key adaptations – also enabled us to
modify environment
– Opposable thumbs
– Walk upright
– Complex brains
• Transmit ideas to others
• Develop technologies to alter environment
Technology dominates earth’s life support
systems and NPP
4-3 How Do Geological Processes and
Climate Changes Affect Evolution?
• Concept 4-3 Tectonic plate
movements, volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes, and climate change
have shifted wildlife habitats, wiped
out large numbers of species, and
created opportunities for the evolution
of new species.
 Plate Tectonics
• Locations of continents and oceans
determine earth’s climate
• Movement of continents allow species to
move and adapt
• Earthquakes and volcanoes affect
biological evolution by separating
populations of a species and allowing new
species to develop
Fig. 4-6, p. 66
225 million years ago 135 million years ago

65 million years ago Present

Fig. 4-6, p. 66
 225
65
135 million
million years
years
Present ago
ago

Stepped Art
Fig. 4-6, p. 66
 Earth’s Long-Term Climate
Changes
• Cooling and warming periods – affect
evolution and extinction of species
– Change ocean levels and area
– Glaciers expanding and contracting
– Climate changes
• Opportunities for the evolution of new
species
• Many species go extinct
Fig. 4-7, p. 67
18,000 Northern Hemisphere Modern day
years before Ice coverage (August)
present

Legend
Continental ice
Sea ice
Land above sea level

Fig. 4-7, p. 67
 Science Focus: Earth is Just
Right for Life to Thrive
• Life needs a temperature range that
results in liquid water
• Earth’s orbit: right distance from sun
• Earth’s optimal gravity: keeps atmosphere
• Favorable temperature range over earth
history has promoted evolution and
biodiversity
• Favorable oxygen level in atmosphere
4-4 How Do Speciation, Extinction, and
Human Activities Affect Biodiversity?
• Concept 4-4 Human activities
decrease the earth’s biodiversity by
causing the premature extinction of
species and by destroying or
degrading habitats needed for the
development of new species.
 Speciation
• Speciation
– One species splits into two or more
species that can no longer breed and
produce fertile offspring
• Geographic isolation
• Reproductive isolation
Fig. 4-8, p. 68
 Adapted to cold
through heavier
Arctic Fox fur, short ears,
short legs, and
short nose.
White fur
Northern matches snow
population for camouflage.
Spreads Different environmental
Early fox northward
and southward conditions lead to different
population
and separates selective pressures and evolution
into two different species.
Gray Fox Adapted to
heat through
Southern lightweight
population fur and long
ears, legs, and
nose, which
give off more
heat.

Fig. 4-8, p. 68
 Science Focus: Changing
Genetic Traits
• Artificial selection
– Selective breeding: crossbreeding varieties
within same species to enhance desired traits
– Grains, fruits, vegetables, dogs, other animals
• Genetic engineering
– Add, delete, or alter DNA segments
– Add desirable genes from other species
– New drugs, pest-resistant plants
– Controversial
 Extinction (1)
• Biological extinction
– Entire species gone
• Local extinction
– All members of a species in a specific area
gone
• Endemic species vulnerable to extinction
• Background extinction
• Speciation generally more rapid than
extinction
 Extinction (2)
• Mass extinction
– Earth took millions of years to recover
from previous mass extinctions
• Balance between speciation and
extinction determines biodiversity of
earth
• Humans cause premature extinction of
species
Human Activities and Extinction
• Cause premature extinction of species
 4-5 What Is Species Diversity
and Why Is It Important?
• Concept 4-5 Species diversity is a
major component of biodiversity and
tends to increase the sustainability of
some ecosystems.
 Species Diversity
• Species richness
• Species evenness
• Varies with geographic location
• Species richness declines towards
poles
 Richness and Sustainability
• Hypothesis
– Does a community with high species
richness have greater sustainability and
productivity?
• Research suggests “yes”
 4-6 What Roles Do Species
Play in an Ecosystem?
• Concept 4-6 Each species plays a
specific ecological role called its
niche.
 Ecological Niche (1)
• Species occupy unique niches and play
specific roles in an ecosystem
• Includes everything required for survival and
reproduction
– Water
– Sunlight
– Space
– Temperatures
– Food requirements
 Ecological Niche (2)
• Generalist species
• Specialist species
• Native species
• Nonnative species
– Spread in new, suitable niches
Fig. 4-10, p. 72
 Ruddy
turnstone
Herring gull searches
is a tireless under shells
scavenger and pebbles
for small
Brown pelican Avocet sweeps bill
invertebrates
dives for fish, through mud and
which it locates surface water in Dowitcher probes
Black skimmer search of small
from the air deeply into mud in
seizes small fish crustaceans, insects, search of snails,
at water surface and seeds marine worms, and
small crustaceans

Flamingo feeds on Louisiana heron Oystercatcher feeds on Piping plover

minute organisms wades into water clams, mussels, and other feeds on insects
in mud to seize small fish shellfish into which it and tiny
pries its narrow beak crustaceans on
sandy beaches
Scaup and other diving Knot (sandpiper)
ducks feed on mollusks, picks up worms
crustaceans, and aquatic and small crustaceans
vegetation left by receding tide

Fig. 4-10, p. 72
 Science Focus: Cockroaches
• Existed for 350 million years – 3,500 known
species
• Highly adapted, rapidly producing generalists
– Consume almost anything
– Endure food shortage
– Survive everywhere except polar regions
– Avoid predation
• Carry human diseases
Fig. 4-11, p. 72
 Indicator Species
• Early warning system
• Fish
• Birds
• Butterflies
• Amphibians
Fig. 4-12, p. 74
 Adult frog
(3 years) Young frog

Tadpole
Sperm develops
into frog

Sexual
reproduction
Tadpole

Eggs Fertilized egg Egg hatches

development
Organ formation
Fig. 4-12, p. 74
 Keystone Species
• Significant role in their food web:
large affect on types and abundances
of other species in an ecosystem
• Elimination may alter structure and/or
function of ecosystem
• Pollinators
• Top predators
 Foundation Species
• Create habitats and ecosystems
• Beavers
• Elephants
• Seed dispersers
 Science Focus: American
Alligator
• Highly adaptable
• Only natural predator is humans
• 1967 – endangered species list
• Successful environmental comeback
• Keystone species
 Case Study: Why Should We
Protect Sharks?
• Remove injured, sick animals
• Many are gentle giants
• Provide potential insight into cures for
human diseases such as cancer
• Keystone species
• Hunted and killed by humans
 Three Big Ideas from This
Chapter - #1
• Populations evolve when genes
mutate and give some individuals
genetic traits that enhance their
abilities to survive and to produce
offspring with these traits (natural
selection).
 Three Big Ideas from This
Chapter - #2
• Human activities are decreasing the
earth’s vital biodiversity by causing
the premature extinction of species
and by disrupting habitats needed for
the development of new species.
 Three Big Ideas from This
Chapter - #3
• Each species plays a specific
ecological role in the ecosystem
where it is found (ecological niche).
Animation: Carbon Bonds
Animation: Stanley Miller’s
Experiment
Animation: Evolutionary Tree of
Life
Animation: Stabilizing Selection
Animation: Disruptive Selection
Animation: Moth Populations
Animation: Adaptive Trait
Animation: Speciation on an
Archipelago
Animation: Evolutionary Tree
Diagrams
Animation: Gause’s Competition
Experiment
Animation: Species Diversity By
Latitude
Animation: Humans Affect
Biodiversity
Animation: Habitat Loss and
Fragmentation
Animation: Transferring Genes
into Plants
Video: Ancient Human Skull

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Video: Asteroid Menace

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Video: Bachelor Pad at the Zoo

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Video: Cloned Pooch

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Video: Creation vs. Evolution

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Video: Dinosaur Discovery

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Video: Glow-in-the-Dark Pigs

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Video: Hsing Hsing Dies

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Video: Mule Clones

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Video: New Species Found

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Video: Penguin Rescue

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