Highway Transportation

PART TWO
HIGHWAY
TRANSPORTATION
11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 1

In the 19th century, a tremendous demand has been
for highway transportation.
The automobile is widely used because of its almost

unlimited freedom, comfort, and convenience .
Highway transportation has profound effects on

urban and regional .

 Highway transportation has become an essential
part of modern civilization .
 Some highway transportation problems are:
1. Congestion .
2. Energy shortage.
3. people killed or injured.
4. Environmental effects (air &noise pollution).

Figure 13 : Congestion
Figure 54
Figure 49
Chapter 6
Highway Planning
 Highway planning is concerned with the
orderly development of a functional and
economical highway network to provide for
present and future needs.
 See Fig. 6.1 for general highway planning

process.

 Information can be obtained by means of various
studies, including:
1. Studies to determine the condition of existing

facilities .
1. Volume and nature of traffic using highway.
2. Use and life expectancy of roads .
3. Future needs.
4. Fiscal .

6.1 Functional Classification
 The systems are distinguished by their general
functions and level of importance in serving
the public .
 Functional classification contributes to the

solution of many problems in highway
planning by :

a. Determining the relative importance of various facilities .
b. Establishing the basis for assigning levels of service .
c. Evaluating deficiencies .
d. Determining the resulting needs.
e. Establishing priority of work .
f. Selecting the most important appropriate level of

government responsible.
g. Determining financing policies.

 Road systems may generally be classified as
follows:
1) Land access roads:
a. They are secondary county roads & local.
b. They are provide access to abutting property .
c. The volume of traffic is usually quite low .

 2. Collectors :.
a. These are secondary roads.
b.They are provide access to higher-type roads.
c. These include primary county highways and

secondary urban arterial highways and other
collector roads.

3. Major arterials:-
a. They provide for high volume traffic between

population centers.
b.This includes primary state highways and major
urban arterial highways.
4. Freeways :-
a. They connect large population centers

b. They are carrying heavy volume of traffic long
distances in and around metropolitan area .
c. Provide no access to abutting property .

6.2 Road Inventory
• A road inventory is made for purpose of :
1- Obtaining sufficient data.

2- Compiling statistics on the mileage of the
Several types of highways.
3- Determining kind of structures .
4- Evaluating highway adequacy.

• A rural road inventory generally includes :
1- Location of boundary lines of all governmental

units.
2-Cultural feature adjacent to roadway (churches
,historical site….) etc.
3- Description of roadway (e.g. roadway width , row
…etc).
4- Riding quality and physical condition of surfaced
roadway, drainage .

5- Bridges of more than 20 ft span and grade
separation.
6-Railway crossings .
7- State highways, and other important roads .
8- Services provided by highways (mail, school

bus , milk) .
9- Land use information on agricultural and other
uses.

• Inventories also include
A.Road life studies
B.Travel inventory
C.Socioeconomic inventory

6.3 Traffic Studies
• Traffic studies provide information on :
1. Fundamental characteristics of traffic flow
(volume, classification, size, weight, speed ,
lateral displacement , auto occupancy ) .
2.Behavior and desires of drivers .

3.Traffic capabilities of highway facilities .

• A volume count program is important in supply
data for :
1.Classification .
2.Study of demands .
3.Programming .
4.Economics studies .
5.Evaluation of service .
6.Design requirements .
7.Prediction of future traffic volumes .

• Traffic volume count program may be carried
out and is of four basic types:
1.Continuous counts :
• By installed an automatic detector for counting
the number of vehicles passing the location
each hour or less on daily basis throughout the
year and over a number of years .

2. Seasonal counts:
• usually for seven consecutive days, and
repeated on schedule of four, six , or 12 times
a year .
3. Coverage counts :
• To provide volume at sufficient number of
locations .
• Automatic traffic recorders are installed for a
period of 24 or 48 consecutive hours, usually
once a year.

4. Classification counts :
• In addition to the volume counts, vehicles

should be classified as to type and counted on
an integrated schedule.
• Schedule should cover Sunday through
Thursday , Friday & Saturday (from 6 am to 10
pm )

• Another study requirement is :
a) To establish truck weighing stations (gross & axle
loads) .
b)Vehicle dimensions.
c) Class of carrier .
d)Speed is conducted periodically at locations for
both rural and urban areas .
• Origin and designation studies are conducted to

provide information associated with motor vehicle
trips, the length of trips , and trip purpose .
• Additional traffic planning which include :
a)Cordon counts. b) Delay
c) Capacity d) Parking
e) Mass transit
are necessary in providing adequate data for
good highway planning .
• After that traffic maps and flow maps can be

prepared .

6.4 Financial Planning Studies
a) Road use b) road life

c) Sufficiency studies
Are important in determining :
a) Costs b) benefits c) fiscal needs.
• The purpose of road use studies is to
determine the relative use of the various
parts of the entire state highway system.

• The objective of a road life study is to determine
the average rate of retirement and the estimated
average service life for each type of highway
surface ( retired by resurfacing…)
• Sufficiency studies are conducted in order to

establish an unbiased and objective rating of
highway network .
• A sufficiency rating compares one roadway to
another or establishes certain standards .

6.5 Highway Needs Studies ( HNS)
• The purpose of HNS is to provide a factual

summary of realistic needs .
• A needs study consists of :
a) Inventory of existing highway network .
b) Traffic volume and characteristics .
c) Existing conditions of roadway .
d) Classification .
e) Analysis and fore casting of future growth .

f) Satisfactory and appropriate design standards
g) Sufficiency .
h) Identification of necessary improvements .
I) Finances .
• The results will be determine the adequacy of

present and future highway systems .

6.6 Fiscal Study
• This study evaluates the present fiscal policy
of the state and recommends to the
legislature an adequate and equitable future
policy based on highway needs .
• The fiscal study also investigated the portion

of the highway tax burden that will be borne
by land , the user , and the nonuser .

6.7 Highway Programming
• Priority programming is the rational selection

of proposed construction projects on the basis
of relative agency .
• The next phase of programming is the
scheduling of both time and funds of each
functional class
• Take projects in order of priority .

6.8 Project Scheduling And Monitoring
• One of the first step is to identify and describe

all of the activities that are necessary for
developing project from start to finish .
• This includes:
a)Actual work b) Time for approval
c) Reviews d) Coordination

• The essential components of the system :
a)Activity list.
b)A standard work flow diagram based on the
cpm.
c) Progress reports
d)Status reports
(showing relationship of progress to the schedule )

• Benefits from the well-designed scheduling:-
a) Assure that scheduled dates are met.

b) Improve coordination between agencies & department
.
c) Realize time savings .
d) Permit timely use of funds.
e) Eliminate unnecessary time cushions .
f) Allow sequencing of projects to better serve he users.
g) Improve response to unforeseen conditions, (such as
funding cuts, design changes, political influences) .

Chapter 7
Traffic Flow Characteristic
• Traffic flow is not homogeneous stream of

identical vehicles .
• Its conglomeration of vehicles which have
different operating characteristics, and
controlled by individuals.

• Inconsistencies in human behavior limit the
accuracy of any model derived to represent
vehicles traveling down a roadway .
7.1 Basic Traffic Variables

The basic variables of the traffic stream are :
a)Flow
b)Speed
c) Density

• 7.1.1 Measurement At A Point
• q = flow= number of vehicles which pass a point
on the roadway during a time period of less
than one hour.
• Flow rate =vehicle per hour (vph) .
• The term volume is used instead of “rate” when
referring to a time period of an hour.
• N
•  ui ……. 7.1
Ut  i 1
N
Figure 12 : Traffic variables
• Where :
Ut = time mean speed.
ui= speed of ith vehicle in mph or kph.
N= number of vehicles passing a point during
time t
7.1.2 Measurement At Short Section :
A short section is an incremental length of dx of
a longer x
N .dx
Us  N …… 7.2
 dt
i 1
i

where:
Us = Space mean speed ( total distance traveled
by all vehicles while in system divided by the
total time that they were in the system )
dti= Time required for the ith vehicle to

transverse a short section dx .
N= Number of vehicles crossing the section
during the time t.

• Relationships for computing time mean speed
from space mean speed and vice versa:
ut  us  
2
s ……… 7.3
us

us  ut  t
2
ut
……. 7.4
Where : 2
 s ,  t are the variances =square of the
2
standard deviation of the vehicular speeds about

Us , Ut respectively.
n
_  dt i
K  i 1
…… 7.5
Tdx
Where:
K= density =# of vehicles occupy a section of
roadway to particular instant of time (vpm,vpk)
_
K= Mean density
T =Period of time
dti = Time required for the ith vehicle to
transverse a short section dx
q  us * k
Where:
q= Flow
Us= Space mean speed
K= Density

7.1.3 Measurement Over A Long Section
• Space time domain : is any enclosed portion of

the space time plane which represents the
movement of a vehicle as it progresses through
time and space .
q
 x i
• Tx …… 7.6
• Where:
• T = a time period .

• Xi = distance traveled by the ith vehicle passing
through the space-time domain.
• X = a long section of roadway .
K
 t i
TX …………….7.7
where:
ti= time taken by ith vehicle to pass through the
domain.
K= density & T =time interval .
X= along section of roadway.
us 
 x i
t i
……..7.8
where:
Us = space mean speed
Xi , ti where defined before
See this Table for summary:

• Headway is the time between the arrival of the
fronts of successive vehicles at a point on the
roadway .
•
3600
ht  ……….7.9
q
where:
ht = Average time headway (sec/vehicle).
q= flow rate (vph).
3600= Number of seconds in hour .

• Spacing or distance headway is the distance
between the front bumpers of successive
vehicles at any given instant .
• Spacing has a great effect on the drivers choice
of speed .
5280 5280
• hd  k  ht.us * 3600 …….7.10
• where:
• hd = Average space headway and it is expressed
as feet per vehicle

• K= density & ht = average time headway
• Us = space mean speed .
• 5280 is the # of feet per mile.
• 7.2 Traffic Variable Relationships

• Traffic variable relationships between volume ,
speed and density involving :
a)Uninterrupted flow
b)Interrupted flow ( high capacity manual)
(highway research board , 1965)
• Uninterrupted flow is defined as a condition in
which a vehicle traversing a section of lane or
roadway is not required to stop by any cause
external to the traffic stream . (vehicles may be
stopped due to cause internal to the traffic
stream )

• Interrupted flow is defined as a condition in
which a vehicle traversing a section of a lane or
roadway is required to stop by a cause outside
the traffic stream such as signs or signals at
intersections or junction.
• Stoppage of vehicles by a cause internal to the

traffic stream does not constitute interrupted
flow .
• Vol(mph)= speed(mph)*density(vpm)
7.2.1 speed-volume Relationships

• Under the uninterrupted flow condition , the
speed-volume relationships shows that as
traffic volume increases , the space-mean
speed or the average overall travel speed of
traffic decreases
• Up to the point of critical density (the density

of max.flow) , both the traffic volume and the
space-mean speed decrease while the density
increase to max. or jam density.

• Straight line reasonably represents
uninterrupted flow relationship in the range
below critical density ( for multilane highways).
• The speed-volume relationship is difficult assess

under interrupted flow conditions.
• When the section under consideration is

several block long, there are likely to be
vehicles and leaving midpoint , this means that
volumes must be averaged to the section .

• Most studies of interrupted flow characteristics
have dealt with relatively short segments of
roadway and have treated the relationship
indirectly in terms of average delay .
• 7.2.2 Volume – Density Relationship
• See Fig. 7.3 for an empirical volume-density

relationship
• See Fig. 7.4 for fundamental diagram

• The relationship indicates that :-
a)Traffic volume will be zero when density =0 or
at max. density(vehicles are lined up end to end
).
b)At normal traffic , an increase in volume .
c) From Figure 7.4- as the point of critical density
B is passed , there is a decrease in flow despite
the continued increase in density .
d)Slope the line OA shows the space-mean speed
corresponding to qa and density ka

Since the space-mean speed equal the flow
divided by density .
e) The slop OD represents the mean free speed
where the flow and density approach to zero.
• The volume associated with extremely
congested traffic conditions are known to be
quite small .
• The density reaches it max. value when the
stream of vehicle has been halted in a bumper
to bumper stoppage.

• 7.2.3 Speed-Density Relationship
• See Fig 7.5 for the empirical speed-density
relationship.
• The relationship is approximately linear with
negative slope .
• As density increases , the speed of the vehicles
in the traffic stream decreases.
• Free flow speed occurs at low density
point(approach to zero) (assume one vehicle on
the road)

• See Fig.7.6 for speed-density relationship by
green shields hypothesized (using least square)
•
uf k
us  uf  k  uf (1  ) ……..7.11
kj kj
• Where:
• Us=space-mean speed
• Uf =free flow speed
• Kj =jam density

k k2
• Since q  usk  kuf (1  )  uf (k  ) …7.12
kj kj
• 2
us us
 usk (1  )  kj (us  ) …7.13
uf uf
•
uf kj ufkj
qm  umkm  ( )( )  ….7.14
2 2 4
• Fig 7.7 shows the conceptual relationships
among flow ,speed, and density.

• 7.3 Measurement Of Traffic Variables
• Accurate measurements of these variables (flow
, speed ,density) must be obtained.
• Ways of measuring traffic variables
a. Aerial photography.
b. Floating car technique
total time detector occupied

Φ *100
total observation time

• Φ=lane occupancy
• ^  5280 …..7.15
k  *
100 Le
• where :
• k^ =estimate density .
• Le =average effective vehicle length.
• Us=N/K^ where us speed N= # of vehicles .
• Floating car method :
N 3  N 2  N1
q
• T1  T 2 ….7.16

L
us  …..7.17
T 1  ( N 2  N 1) / q
Where :
• N1# of vehicles that observation car passes
• N2# of vehicles that pass observation car
• T1 travel time of first direction
• N3# of vehicles in the stream that it meets
• T2 the travel time in the opposite direction.

• Density computer to measure the # j and
speeds of vehicles at a point.
• Areas severe congestion can be pinpointed on
maps.
• 7.4 Theories Of Traffic Flow

• The traffic flow theory is a discipline that
attempts to analyze the traffic stream from a
theoretical stand point
• The three best-known approaches are

• 7.4.1 Hydrodynamic Analogies
• The basic assumption is that high-density traffic
will behave like a continuous fluid having a
certain density and fluid velocity.

• q=usk
• …..7.20 q= density
• 7.4.2 Car-Following Theory

• It is a microscopic model , describes vehicular
flow as a series of intervehicular interactions.
• The car-following theory has usually been
formulated for single-lane roadway , where the
following driver has no opportunity to pass

• … ..7.21
• An expression of the driver’s reaction time and

his awareness of changes in speed by the
vehicle in front of him.

• 7.4.3 Queuing Theory
• It is a microscopic model
• It is concerned with waiting queues and their
delays.
a)Single channel system
• Only one customer is selected for service at a
time , usually in order of arrival .
• (tall , stop sign…)
• The probability of having exactly n vehicles in
the system Pn

• ….7.22
• ….7.23
•
• …7.24
• …..7.25
• …..7.26
• b) Multi Channel Systems
• Leading vehicle leaves the waiting line and
enters the service facility only when one of the
channels becomes available .
• First-come-first-served discipline is employed
• The probability of a vehicle being in the system
is:
…7.27
• …7.28

Chapter 8
Highway Capacity And Level Of
Service
• Highway capacity is a quantitative and

qualitative measure which permits evaluation
of both adequacy and the quality of vehicle
service being provided by the facility under
study.
• Function of capacity analyses :
1.Deficiencies in existing highway system .
2.Proposed changes in the existing street.
3.New facilities must be based upon capacity .
4.Comparison of relative effectiveness of

alternative modes.
8.1 Capacity Definition
• It is the maximum number of vehicles which

have :
a) A reasonable expectation of passing over a given
section of a lane or a roadway in one direction (or in
both directions for two lane or a three lane
highway ).
b) During a given time.
c) Under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions .

• Ideal conditions are ( max. traffic volume) :-
1.Uninterrupted flow.
2.Passenger cars only in the stream.
3.Traffic lane =12 ft (3.66m), adequate shoulder,
no lateral obstruction within 6 ft .
4.In rural highway, vertical & horizontal

alignment satisfactory for an average speed of
70mph(112.5kph) or more restricted passing
sight distance on 2 or 3 lane.

• In HCM , uninterrupted flow capacities
a)Multilane highway , 2000 passing. Cars/hr/lane
b) Two-lane , two-way , 2000 vph total from both

directions
c) Three-lanes , two-way , 4000 vph total from

both directions

Figure 41 : Highway capacity
Figure 40 : Multi highway
Figure 22 : Two way Highway
Figure 20 : Multi lanes
Figure 19 : Two ways six lanes
8.2 Level Of Service Concept
• Level of highway service is a qualitative

measure which describes the operating
conditions that occur on a given lane roadway
under various traffic volumes.
• When the traffic volume is equal to the
capacity of highway , the highway provides a
poor operating condition ( speed is low and
frequent stops create high delay)

• There are six level of service :
1.Level of service A : describes a condition of free

flow , within speeds controlled by driver desires
, speed limits, and physical roadway
conditions .
2.Level of service B : it is the zone of stable flow ,

with operation speeds beginning to be
restricted some what by traffic conditions.

3) Level of service C : it is still in the zone of
stable flow , but speeds and maneuverability
are more closely controlled by the higher
volume .
4) Level of service D : approaches unstable

flow ,with tolerable operating speeds being
maintained through considerably affected by
changes in operating conditions .

5) Level of service E : cannot be described by
speed a lone , lower operating speeds than in
level D , volumes at or near the capacity .
6) Level of service F : forced flow operation at
low speeds, volume below capacity .
• Travel speed and vol/cap ratio be selected as

major factors in computing level of service .
• See table 8.1 below :

.

Figure 15 : Highway capacity Level of service
Figure 14
8.3 Factors Affecting Capacity And Level
Of Service
1) Roadway factors :
a) lane width b) Lateral clearance
c) Shoulders d) auxiliary lanes
e) Surface conditions f)alignment
i) Grades

2) Traffic factors:
a)Trucks.
b)Buses .
c) Lane distribution .
d)Variations of traffic flow .
e)Traffic interruptions .

• Factors of signalized intersections :
1.Physical and operations conditions (width,

parking)
2.Environmental condition: (metropolitan area
pollution)
3.Traffic characteristics: (load factor, peak hour
factor )
4.Control measures (traffic signals, and markings)

Chapter 9
Uniform Traffic Laws
And Control
Devices
9.1 Traffic Laws And Ordinances
 Traffic regulations should secure by law the safety
and operational efficiency of people and goods
movement.
 Traffic laws and ordinances are legislative action.

9.2 Elements For Regulation
 There are three basic elements for regulation :
1.Driver control :
Accidents would be reduced if all drivers look into
consideration the design and condition of vehicles
and roadways.
These controls are primarily concerned with
licensing of drivers , their financial responsibility ,
and civil ability in auto use.
2. Vehicle controls :
 minimum and maximum design standards
regulations cover :
A. Title and registration.
B. Antitheft law
C. Licensing of dealers , wreckers and rebuilders.
D.Inspection of vehicles.
E. Equipment on vehicles.
F. Size , weight , and loads of vehicles.
G.Pollution control equipment.
3. Vehicle operation control
The basic rules govern:
A. Row
B. Speed restrictions
C. Turning
D.Stopping
E. Standing
F. Parking
G.Highway should be safe and efficient
9.3 Uniform Traffic Control Devices
 Traffic control devices are :

A. Signs
B. Signals
C. Markings
D.And other devices placed on ,over ,or adjacent to a
street or highway
Manual on uniform traffic control devices
(1978) ,presents device standards.
 Device functions are :

1. Regulator devices : (notice of laws & regulation).
2. Warning devices : (all motorists attentions).
3. Guiding devices : (provide information to
tremstcists .
Device requirements
 Devices should meet the following basic

requirements :
1. Fulfill a need.
2. Command attention.
3. Convey a clear and simple meaning.
4. Command respect of road users.
5. Give adequate time for proper response.
To ensure that these requirements the following are
employed:
1. Design of devices (size , color , shape …….).
2. Device placement within the vision range.
3. Installation of appropriate devices.
4. Maintenance of devices.
 Devices uniformity :
1. It provides for more orderly and efficient traffic flow
and make driving easier and more pleasant.
2. It provides for the economical manufacture
,installation ,maintenance.
Device uniformity can be achieved by :
A. Design. (shape ,color ,symbol ,wording ,and

reflectorization ,and lettering.
B. Meaning :uniform meaning avoids confusion ,helps
users in unfamiliar areas.
C. Application : awareness and avoids the improper
use of devices.
D. Location :reduce the possibility of the user
overlooking the device.
9.3.1 Traffic Signs
 Traffic sign is a device mounted on a fixed or portable
support where by a specific message is conveyed by
means of words or symbols officially erected for the
purpose of regulating ,warning ,or guiding traffic.
 Traffic signs shape :

1. Diamond –shape is used to warn drivers of roadway
hazards.
2. Vertical rectangle is used for regulatory signs.
3. Horizontal rectangle is used for guide and giving
directions.
• See Fig 9.1 for shape and size of signs
• In general ,signs are usually located on the right

–hand side of roadways for easy viewing by
drivers.(proper angle &placed sufficient).
Figure 27 : Signs
Figure 29 : Speed limits: upper & lower
Figure 30 : Stop sign
Figure 32 : Guiding signs
9.3.2 Traffic Markings
1. They are lines ,patterns ,words ,colors ,and other
devices.
2. Set into the surface of ,applied upon ,or attached to
the pavement ,curbing ,or objects.
3. Most markings are placed by means of paint.
4. Thermoplastic and cold plastic materials can be
used.
5. White ,yellow ,red may be used.
Figure 52 :
Figure 56
• Markings may be classified into :
1. Longitudinal markings ,which include:
a . center lines
b . pavement edge lines
c . No passing zones
d . Turning lanes before intersections
e . Channelizing
2. Transverse markings ( crosswalks & stop
lines).
3. Message markings (words ,symbols ,and
arrow).
4 . Miscellaneous markings (curb ,parking stall).
5 . Object markers (show objects by the road they may be
hazardous).
6 . Markers ,reflector ,and delineators ,which show the
path of road.
 Concepts of longitudinal markings :
1. Yellow lines to mark left boundary at particular hazard
location.
2. White lines to separate the flow in same directions.
3. Red on raised pavement (shall not be used ).
4. Broken lines are permissive in character.
5. Solid lines are restrictive in character.
6. Width of line indicates the degree of emphasis.
7. double lines indicate no-passing zones.
(see Fig.9.2 typical pavement markings)
 Crosswalks should be at least six feet in width.
 Word markings on pavement should be limited to
three words or less.
 Lettering and symbols should be elongated ,at least
2.44 meters high.
 All pavement markings to be used at night should
be reflectorized .
Figure 34 : Markings
Figure 44
9.3.3 Traffic signals
1. Traffic signals are those electrically or
electronically controlled devices by which
vehicular and pedestrian traffic is alternately
directed to stop and proceed .
2. They are used for:
a . pedestrian crossing
b . Lane use control.
c . Traffic control at moveable bridge .
d . Priority control .
e . One or two way operations .
3 . If they are used properly:
a . Increase capacity .
b . Reduces accidents .
c . Provides for continuous flow .
d . Allows spaces for crossing heavy streams of traffic .
4 . If not properly installed:

a . Cause excessive delay .
b . Reduced capacity.
c . Disobedience by drivers.
d . Increase accident frequency .
5 . Traffic signals can be classified into three categories
according to their functions :
a .pedestrian signals (walk ,don’t walk).
b .special traffic signals (flashing)
c .traffic control signals.
6 . Traffic control signals are classified according to how

they are controlled:
a) pretimed: they are programmed a head of time.

b .Actuated :
1. semi-actuated the devices tell the control box the
presence of a vehicle or pedestrian and within a
reasonable time the main flow of traffic is stopped
and the vehicle or pedestrian is allowed to cross (one
or more lanes).
2.Fully actuated :are similar to semi ,expect that

these devices are located on all lanes . They are
changing according to the flow of approaching
traffic.
c. computer controls:
1. The most expensive but more flexible and powerful .
2. The devices relay information about the number of
peoples and vehicles to a computer which signal displays.
7 .The important elements of signal design:

a . Analyzing the intersection data (e.g. volume…..).
b . Identifying the type of controller (pretimed…..).
c . Selecting the phasing arrangement (lefting turn…..).
d . Calculating the timing (cycle length and split).
e . Preparing the planes (location of signal).
f . Preparing the specification (quality……).
g . Preparing the estimates (cost estimations).
See Figure below :
9.3.4 Traffic Islands
 They can also be considered as a type of traffic
control devices (between traffic lanes).
 Islands may be generally classified into:

1 . Pedestrian refuge islands.
2 . Traffic divisional islands.
3 . Traffic channelizing islands.
Figure 23 : Pedestrian
Figure 26 : Signals
Figure 32 : Guiding signs
Figure 37 : Traffic signal control
Figure 42
Chapter 10
Traffic System
Control
١٤٤٣/٠٤/٣ 15:37 khedawi& bakeer 139
Concepts of various traffic control
technique are directed towards:
A. Reducing traffic delays.
B. Reducing traffic accidents.
C. Increasing the carrying capacity of streets.
 Two basic traffic control on urban streets:

A. Individual intersection control.
B. Street system control.
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10.1 Intersection Control
 Intersections are a major source of most:
a . Interruptions.
b . Delays.
c . Accidents.
 To increase intersection capacity ,control must
be placed to:
a. Assign r.o.w .
b. Reduce accidents.
c. More effective flow.
d. Protection of pedestrian.
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10.1.1 Priority Or Time-Sharing Control
1. Priority intersections exist where one of the

intersection streets is given definite priority
over others.
2. No delay occurs to the major flow traffic.
3. Time-sharing intersections alternate the right

of way to various traffic movement at
different points in time.
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4 . Typical form of controls are:
a . Traffic signals.
b . Police direction.
5 . Priority controls of intersections are mainly

the application of stop or yield signs.
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10.1.2 Turn Control
1. Turn prohibitions are one method used when
turning vehicles cause undue delay or
congestion for the through traffic.
2. Left turn movements account for:

a . Many of the intersectional delays.
b . Accidents.
c . Interferences along heavily traveled arterial
streets ;thus ,they must often be eliminated .
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10.1.3 Physical Control
Traffic islands and markings for channelization are the
most frequent types of design control along with
degree of intersection of approaches.
 Purpose of channelization
1. Separating traffic.
2. Controlling angle of conflict.
3. Reducing excessive pavement area.
4. Regulating traffic.
5. Favoring predominant turning movements.
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6 .Protecting pedestrians.
7 .protecting and storing turning and crossing vehicles.
8 .location of traffic control devices.
9 .prohibiting specific movements.
10 .controlling speed.
• Grade separation may be solve many existing at

grade intersection problems.
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 The criteria to be used in deciding on an
interchange are:
1. Freeway development : (full control of access).
2. Elimination of bottle nesksor spot congestion.
3. Elimination of hazard.
4. Site topography : (economically).
5. Road user benefits : (cost due to delay).
6. Traffic volume warrant : (volume in excess of
capacity).
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10.2 Street System Control
10.2.1 One –Way Street
 One-way streets are used because:

1. More efficient and more safer than 2-way.
2. They relieve traffic congestion.
3. Promote vehicle & pedestrian safety.
4. Capacity higher than two-way.
5. Delays are minimized.
6. Travel speeds are increased.
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Disadvantages concerning one-way
1. Necessitate additional travel for some motorists.
2. Tourists may become confused with the system.
3. It requires additional sign posting.
4. Emergency vehicles may have more difficulty
moving on a one-way street.
 Two types for one-way street

1. Limits operation to one direction at all time.
2. Reversible one way.
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Warrants for one-way street
1. Existing street are too narrow. ( <6.1 m )
2. Full utilization of all lanes . (demand volume).
3. Street pattern develops circles at focal points.
4. Block undesirable movements.
5. Setting up progressive plan for traffic signal.
6. Number of accidents from left turn are high.
7. Relief of congestion and delay.
8. Avoiding economic decay.
9. Secure access to parking lots and garages.
10.Relieve congestion in the stream of transit
traffic.
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Requirements must be met
1. Traffic must be equally accommodated in each direction.
2. There should be frequent entrance and exits points.
3. Movements should be applied to the predominant
direction of traffic flow.
4. It should be designed to drain traffic away.
5. Loading points must be studied.
6. Standard signs should be provided.
7 . Accurately planned program of public education should
precede the installation of the one-way system.
 One-way regulation must be fully backed by the
public officials.
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10.2.2 Reversible Lanes
 To improve prime direction flow on urban streets ,the
reversible lane can be a very efficient method of
providing increase capacity (peak volumes occurring
at certain peril).
 Advantage having reversible lanes:
1. Can add significant street capacity.
2. Minimal initial capital cost.
3. Permits multilane operational efficiencies in the peak

direction (faster moving traffic pass slow).
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Disadvantage of a reversible lane
1. Reduced capacity and flexibility in the off-peak
direction.
2. Hazardous if not adequately designated and signed.
3. More costly in the long run (daily change one).
 Basic system of controls are:
A. Physical barriers.
B. Lane direction signals.
C. Signs.
D. surveillance.
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Physical barriers include:
A. Permanent installations.
B. Temporary barriers.
C. Lane markings.
 The signal lights can be either:

1. Automatically.
2. Manually operated.
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10.2.3 Reserved transit lanes
1. It does permit more efficient bus service.
2. Such lane use can be either full time or part
time ,and is usually restricted to streets
where a lane of buses would carry as many
people as a lane of automobiles.
 Advantages of the exclusive bus lane
A. Ability to improve bus speeds.
B. Help to reduce congestion.
C. It relatively in expensive to install
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Disadvantage of the exclusive bus lane
A. It does require continual enforcement to prevent misuse
of the lane by cars and trucks.
B. Reduce the number of moving lanes.
C. It can make right turns difficult.
D. If one of the center lanes is used ,it can create
pedestrian hazard zones.
 Another concept for improving traffic flow is the
use of freeway lanes exclusively for buses and
car pods during peak periods.
 Trip markers change their mode of travel from
individual automobiles to car pools and bus
transit.
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10.2.4 Curb-Parking Control
1. Increasing street utilization is by restricting curb
parking on all or portion of a street.
2. When traffic volumes exceed street capacity ,curb
parking should be prohibited.
 The disadvantages are:
A. Capacity is greatly reduced.
B. A row of parked cars on both sides of the street
,eliminates two potential lanes of traffic.
C. It is effect on traffic safety.(17% of all accidents).
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Control of curb parking is achieved through
the use of several regulations:
1. No parking : (allow for loading or unloading).
2. No standing: (allow passenger pick up not loading)
3. No stopping or standing: (stop of vehicles will effect the

safe and flow of traffic).
4. No parking (loading) zone: (adequate space is provided

for taxis ,loading and unloading bus stops ,passenger
zones ,and similar situation.
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Parking meters are used as:
1. An aid in the enforcement of time limit restrictions.
2. Simplify and reduce the cost of enforcement.
3. Increase parking turnover.
4. Reduce over time parking.
5. Produce revenue that is often used to pay for the

installation & operation of additional meters.
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10.3 Traffic Signal Systems
 The objective of signal system design :
1. Minimize the average delay to all vehicles.
2. Minimize the average delay to all pedestrians.
3. Minimize the total delay to any group of vehicles or pedestrians
without sacrificing safety.
 Signal system may be consist of:
1. Single isolated intersection.
2. Group of intersections on an arterial route.
3. Complete net work of intersections.
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Definition in signal timing
1. Cycle length :total time required for the complete
sequence of phases.
2. Signal phase :a part of time cycle allocated to any
traffic movement.
3. Interval :any one of the divisions of the time cycle in
which the traffic signal indication does not change.
4. Offset :the time interval or percentage of the cycle
time that the green indication begins at a given traffic
signal after a certain instant used as a time reference.
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10.3.1 Isolated intersections
 An isolated signal is one at which the timing
independent of any other signal in the vicinity.
 Short cycle lengths of 35-50 second.
 Longer lengths may be required at high volume
locations.
 Number of phases should be kept to a minimum in
order to minimize the total delay.
 Two phase operation when ever possible.
 At multi approach intersections ,more than two
phases may become necessary.
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 Minimum cycle length for n-phase operation:
C min …….10.1
Where:
• C min : minimum cycle length in seconds.

• Ni : critical lane volume expressed as the number vehicles per
passenger car equivalents (pce) units entering the
intersection on the street I during the peak hour .
• Yi : vehicles clearance interval ,in seconds for Ni direction.
• PHF : peak hour factor (ratio of volume observed during peak

hour to four times the maximum observed flow rate during
the 15-minute period).
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 It was found that turning vehicles and commercial
vehicles (buses and trucks) usually consume
additional time to pass the intersection.
 These added delay times must be included in

determining vehicles green intervals:
1. Extra to green interval 1.5 second for each left turn.
2. 1.4 for each right –turn vehicle.
3. 1.5 for bus &truck.
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 Critical lane volumes in terms of passenger car
equivalents (pce):
N= i …10.2
• Where:
Vi= actual total volume for the approach.
Ci= number of commercial vehicles for the approach.
Li= number of left turns for the approach.
Ri= number of right turns for the approach.
Ni= number of usable lanes for the approach.
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It should be noted that if:
1.Amount of apposing left-turning is low.
2.Number of conflicts between pedestrian and
right turning vehicles is minimal.
3.Volume of commercial vehicles is limited.
The function of clearance interval:
1.To allow the motorists to come to a safe stop.
2.To allow vehicles which have entered the
intersection sufficient time to clear it.
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 Yellow interval in second =
…..10.3
Where:
t = perception reaction time of drivers.
Vi = approach speed on the ith approach in(ft/sec) or
(m/sec).
a = declaration rate of clearing vehicle =(15 ft/sec^ 2).
wi = width of street crossed.
L= length of vehicles ,suggested value 20 ft (6.1 m).
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 Average time headway = 2.5 sec for call.
 Number of vehicles that are to be
accommodated by green interval=
vehicles accumulate during the red indication
+those that arrive during the green indication
for that direction.
For two approaches,
 ….10.4
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If the average headways for the two
intersecting streets are essentially the same
then:
……10.5
…….10.6
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 Pedestrian starting delay time of 5 second and
a walking speed =4.0 ft/sec. are used to
determine a minimum green interval:
…..10.7
Where:
Gi =min green interval in sec. for the given phase i.
Di=length in feet of the longest crosswalk used by
pedestrian for the given phase i.
Yi=duration of the yellow interval in seconds for the
given phase i.
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Example page 138
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Figure 10 : Traffic light
10.3.2 Signal System Coordination
 In an urban arterial system ,especially where
the signals are closely spaced ,it is desirable to
coordinate the traffic signals to provide
uninterrupted vehicular flow.
 MUTCD recommends that signals within 0.5
mile of each other be coordinated on major
streets.
 The approached signal turns green ,thus
allowing the platoon of vehicles to move
continuously through the intersection.
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 There are two types of variations:
1. Volumes increase or decrease at one or more signals in the
system(require different cycle length).
2. Variation in traffic flow direction.
 This can be divided into:
1. Inbound flow > outbound flow(at a.m period).
2. Inbound and outbound flows same what equal(at midday or
night).
3. Outbound flow greater than inbound flow.
 At least three timing plans and implemented them
on a time of day basis.
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10.3.2.9 Types Of Signal System
1. Simultaneous system.
2. Alternate system.
3. Simple progressive system.
4. Flexible progressive system.
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1. Simultaneous system
 In the simultaneous system ,all the signals along a
given street have a common indication at all times.
they operate with the same cycle length and display
the green indication at the same time.
 Alternatively ,all splits are equal or all offset are
3000.
 Speed which the vehicle should maintain to arrive at
each signal at green V= L
C
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• Where :
V= speed (ft/sec) or (m/sec).
C= cycle length (sec).
L= signal spacing (ft) or (m).
{requires that street lengths are equal}.
Disadvantages of this system:
1. The vehicles on the minor streets have difficulty turning on
or crossing the major street when the flow on the major road
is continue.
2. Cycle length is controlled by the needs of one or two major
intersections in the system.
3. Stopping all traffic at the same time prevents continuous
movement of traffic.
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 Advantages of this system:
1. Simultaneous operation will provide for nearly
continuous movement which are part of a larger group
to be coordinated.
2. Simultaneous system improve the operation of traffic.
 In the alternate system a group of signals gives
opposite indications to the same street at the
same time.
 In a single alternate system ,successive
installations give the opposite signal indication
from their predecessors at any time.
 In a double alternate system ,pairs of adjacent
installations operate at the same time and the
signal indications alternate between each
succeeding pair.
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 In the triple alternate system ,where a group of three
signals operate at the same time ,the signal
indications alternate between groups.
 For single alternate system:
2L ….. 10.9
V 
 For double system: C
 4 L …..10.10
V 
 Where: C
 V= Speed of progression (ft/sec) or (m/sec).
 C= cycle length (sec).
 L= signal spacing (ft) or (meter).
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In the simple progressive system:
1. all offset should be arranged in order to let a
vehicle entering the system ,in the direction of
progression just after the green initiation of the
first signal to arrive at all other signals just after
the green initiation of the signal.
2. The offset between two signals:
= distance between the two signals
speed
3. This system can meet the variations in traffic
flow.
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 In flexible progressive system ,there is
opportunity for the common cycle length
,signal offsets ,and split to be changed to suit
the needs of traffic throughout the day.
 A longer cycle length can be provided to
accommodate the increased demand during
the peak hours.
10.3.2.b Design Of Arterial System.
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 A longer cycle length can be provided to
accommodate the increased demand during
the peak hours.
10.3.2.b Design Of Arterial System.
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Chapter 11
Design Of Highway Facilities

 The design of highway facilities has an
area of increasing concern.
 Human needs considered in the design of:
1. System includes its functions.
2. Safety.
3. Reliability.
4. Convenience.
5.Appearance.
Figure 38 : Design of highway facilities
Steps in design project
1. Decide on the feasibility of the given need.
2. Preliminary design (select group of the idea)
3. Revision of the design to meet any standards
previously given.
 Highway facilities:
1. Highway geometric design.
2. Parking facilities design.
3. Pedestrian and bicycle facilities.
11.1 Highway Geometric Design
 It is deal with:
1. Horizontal and vertical alignment.
2. Cross sections.
3. Sight distance.
4. Intersections.
11.1.1 Design Controls And Criteria
 Highway classes according to road function:
1. In rural areas:
a. Freeways . B. Primary. C. Secondary.
2. In urban areas :
a. Freeways. b. Major arterial c. Collector
The following criteria and controls should be
consider
1. Traffic characteristics :
 A knowledge of the expected traffic Volume
on high way will be required.
 The most important traffic flow elements
are:
A. ADT (average daily traffic) :
(Number of vehicles that use a section of road in 24
hours period
LARDT= total annual
365
B. Design hourly volume (DHV)
C. Composition of traffic (in percent of trucks (T):The
designer must be know the truck traffic.
D. Directional distribution (D):
it is a percentage of a traffic moving in the predominant
direction and is applied to the DHV to determine the
directional DHV.
2. Design vehicle :
It is a chosen vehicles of specific weight , height
,length ,width ,and operating characteristic used to
represent a certain class of vehicles.
196
 It influence :
 Minimum turning bath , which effect:
1. Radius at highway curves
2. Size of intersect and interchange
3. Driver characteristic :
 factors are :
A. Perception time: (time to take action).
B. Reaction time: (physical action to be taken), For
stopping and passing sight distances, approach
situation for reaction.
C. Judgment is a key factor.
4. Design speed :
 It is a major factor for design
 Design is a max safe speed that can be
maintained over a specific section of high
way when conditions favor the design
features of high way.
 High way design element (horizontal ,
vertical and sight distances) all are directly
related to design speed.
5. Highway capacity and level of service :
(they are introduce earlier)
6.Topography and physical features :
• These are effect the geometric design
(hills, valleys, lakes, rivers, buildings,
industrial plant sites, and other natural and
man made features often place limitations
upon the location and design of a road)
7.Cost and available funds :
a. It is important factors.
b. It is the task of the design engineer to develop
a highway that meats all other design criteria
and stays within the project budget.
8.Esthetics and safety:
• Pleasing appearance that be lends well within
surrounding.
9.Other control:
 There are factor will influence the geometric design
such:
1. Intersections .
2. Weaving sections . 3. Ramp.
4. Rest areas . 5. Lightings.
6. Drainage and erosion control.
7. Utility .
8. Environmental concerns .
9. Signing and marker.
11.1.2 Design Elements:
• These are:
1. Alignment
2. Sight distance
3. Cross section
11.1.2.a Horizontal Alignment:
• The horizontal alignment of a highway is a
series of tangents connected by circular
curves.
• It is necessary to consider:
1. Design speed
2. Degree of curvature
3. Super elevation
• The relation ship of these elements are:
2
v
e f  ……. 11.1
15 R
Where:
e= rate of super elevations (ft/ft)
f= side friction factor
v= vehicle speed (mph)
R= radius of curve (ft)
• Max e = 0.12 as (AASHTO)
• See Table 11.1 below that shows the relation

ship between max e, max f, design speed , and
min radius
• Transition curve:
3
3.15V
L  …….. 11.2
Where: RC
L= min length of spiral curve (ft)
V= speed (mph)
R= curve radius (ft)
C= constant ranging from 1 to 3
• Super elevation run off is the length required to
affect the change in cross section from normal crown
in the tangent sections to fully super elevation
section at the beginning of the circular curve
• Length of the runoff is a function of :
1. Design speed
2. Lane width
3. Super elevation rate
• Min runoff length = 100 to 250 ft
• See Table 11.2 below for length requires

• For pavements wider than two lanes multiply
the length by :
1. 1.2 for 3 lane pavement
2. 1.5 for four lane undivided pavement
3. 2 for six lane undivided pavement
• General central measures for horizontal
alignment:
1. Alignment should be consistent with topography .
2. Avoiding sudden changes of curvature.
3. Short length of curve should be a voided .
4. Compound curves with large difference in radii should be a
voided
Figure 43
5. Direct reversal of alignment without tangent should
be a voided.
6. Broken bask curve should be a voided.
7. Max curve for any particular design speed should be
a voided.
11.1.2.b Vertical Curve :
• Vertical alignment is a series of tangent
grades connected by parabolic vertical curve
• Max grade = 3% for 80 mph speed
• Max grade = 5 to 12% for 30 mph
• See Table 11.3 below for max grades
Critical length of grade :
• It is a max length of a designated upgrade upon
which a loaded truck can operate an unreasonable
reduction in speed and below which interference to
following vehicle is considered unreasonable
• See Figure 11.1 below

•Control measures which should be
considered in vertical alignment :
1. Gradual change should be sought (smooth).
2. Hidden dip type should be a voided (more gradual
grades).
3. It is desirable to reduce the grade through the
intersection .
4. Climbing lane should be considered where the
critical length of grade is exceeded.
5. Broken back grade line should be a voided
6. It maybe preferable to lower the grade at the crest
of the climb.
7. Coordination.
11.1.2.c Sight Distance:
• Sight distance is the length of highway
ahead which is visible to the driver
• It should be long enough to permit a driver
traveling at the design speed to step in order
to a void hitting an object on the road
• Perception time = 1.5 sec (realisation)
• Brake time = 1 sec (apply the brake)
•on level road:
2
v
d  1.47tv 
30 f
•on grade road:

2
v
d  1.47vt 
30( g  f )
v= speed (mph)
t= reaction time (2.5 sec)
f= coefficient of skidding friction
g= grade
•Passing sight distance:
• See Figure 11.2 and Table 11.4 below
• For two lanes highways the min passing sight
distance is equal the sum of:
1. d1= the distance traveled during the
perception and reaction time.
2. d2= distance traveled while the passing
vehicle is in the left lane.
3. d3= distance between the passing vehicle and
the approaching vehicle at the end of the
manoeuvre .
4.d4 = distance traveled by the opposing vehicle
for two-thirds of the line the passing vehicle is
in the left lane.
11.1.2.d Cross Section:
• One most consider:
1. Surface type
2. Cross slope
3. Lane width
4. Curbs
5. Medians
6. Shoulders
7. Road side
• For two-lane pavement
(see Table 11.5 below for slope)
• The cross slope may be
• On divided highways each one-way pavement

maybe crowned separately
• Lanes of 10 to 13 ft (3.05-3.06)m are new
commonly used
• Curbs are used:
1. Control drainage
2. Delineate the pavement drainage
3. Prevent drivers from leaving the traveled way
(maybe painted)
 Shoulder :
1. It is a portion of the road way adjacent to the
traveled way which is used to accommodate
stopped vehicles for :
a. Emergency use.
b. Lateral support of base and surface courses .
2. Shoulder width = 9-12 ft (2.74-3.66)m
3. Min shoulder = 4 ft (1.22)m
 For lowest type highway:
1. Shoulder can also increase the sight distance and
the capacity of the road way .
2. Medians have been used effectively in suburban
areas because of their safety record.
3. Medians also on rural highway should be of
sufficient width to minimize the interference of
opposing traffic and headlight a lane.
4. Grouped of medians:
a. Point-stripped separations, 0.61-1.22m wide
b. Narrow ,raised ,or curbed sections (1.22-1.83)m
c. Point ,striped or curbed sections with sufficient space
for left-turning lanes (4.27-5.49)m
d. Wide medians exceeding 6.10m wide
11.1.3 Inter-Sections And Interchange Points:
• An intersection is an area within which two or more

roadway ,join or cross
• Fundamental principles for design :
1. Reduce the number of conflict points

2. Intersections with more than four legs should be avg
3. Use the crossing design which provides the safest. movement
at an acceptable cost.
4. Coordinate geometric design with traffic control .
5. Reduce the area of conflict and separate the conflict points.
6. Separate lane can be provided at locations with high turning
volumes.
11.1.3.a At Grade Intersection:
-See Figure 11.3 below for general type of intersection:
 Basic types of at grade intersections are:
a) T
b) Y
c) Four legs
d) Rotary
 Intersection is determined by:
a) Number of legs.
b) Topography .
c) Traffic pattern.
d) Intended function.
 The design of the curb or radius return
depends on the turning path of the vehicle
using the intersection.
• See Table 11.6 below for gives min edge of pavement
design:
 See Figure 11.4 below for typical design for
passenger vehicles and larger vehicles:
• Turning lanes serve two purpose :
1. They provide storage for turning vehicles
2. They serve as deceleration lanes
• Turning roadways are to be used when cars
are allowed to turn at speeds of 15 mph
11.1.3.b Interchanges:
• It is an intersection at which there exists a
grade separation between the intersection
road way
• It provide the operational benefit of
maximizing the capacity
• Their constriction costs are high
• Types of interchanges:
1. Cloverleaf interchange :see Figure 11.5
below
2. Diamond interchange :see Figure 11.6
below
3. Directional interchange :have more than one
highway grade separation see Figure 11.7
below.
• Ramp design is the single critical factor of
the design of the interchange
• Shape of ramp depending upon :
1. Traffic volume
2. Design speed
3. Intersection angle
4. Type of ramp terminal
5. Available right of way
Figure 19 : Two ways six lanes
11.2 Parking Facilities Design:
• The continued popularity of the motor
vehicle ,along with the expansion of the
highway system ,has greatly increased the
need for parking spaces.
• Information for a parking program :
a. Number of parking.
b. Parking duration .
c. Trip purpose .
d. Time of arrival.
e. Final destination.
11.2.1 Curb Parking :
• Types of curb parking layout :
1. Parallel parking .
2. Angle parking.
 Parallel parking is most desirable it reduces
the use of steel width for parking .
 Angle parking accommodates more vehicles
than parallel parking ,more hazardous
 See Figure 11.8 below for curb parking:
• Types of curb stalls :
A.End stall : it can be found at the end of a row
of parking ,the length = 20 ft.
B.Interior stall : length =22 ft + 4 ft for
maneuvering space .
C.Paired parking stalls : two cars are parked
bumper to bumper in 18 ft stalls separated by
8 ft open spaces for maneuvering .
• See Figure 11.9 for paired parking:

11.2.2 Off- Street Parking:
• Street curb paring has no longer desirable in
the area of high traffic concentrations
• Effective solution is providing off-street
parking
11.2.2.a Facility Location :
- The location of an off-street parking depends
on:
A. Population density .
B. Population distribution.
C. Location of traffic generators
D. Adequacy of existing parking facilities
E. Lane availability
F. Cost
G. Location of suitable access streets
11.2.2.b Parking Lot Design :
• It should be :
1. Convenience
2. Safety
3. Cost low to attract the user
• See Figure 11.10 below for parking stall layout
elements:
• See Figure 11.11 below for interlock and herringbone parking
patterns:
- Types of car handling :
a) Self-serve : less efficient
b) Attend out parking
- Stacking should not be allowed
- More than one parking angle layout may be
used to maximize space utilization
- See Figure 11.12 below for shows two layouts
in the same total area (20% difference in
capacity)
11.2.2.c Parking Garage Design:
• Multi-storey parking garages are usually
constructed in area of high land valves because of
their economic land use
• Classification of parking garage :
1. Vertical location (underground and aboveground )
2. Vertical handling of cars (ramps ,sloping ,floor ,or
mechanical elevator).
3. Typed operation (attendant or self service )
• Ramp garage :
1. Most common type facility .
2. Min capacity of 200 cars .
3. Economical to built (walls are open ,ceilings low ,no
heating ,no ventilation systems resulting in low
maintenance costs ).
• Design criteria :
1. Ramp grade = 12% or less
2. Ramp width = 9 ft for straight ramp of 16 ft curved
ramps
3. Ramp curvature : min = 20 ft
4. Ramp super elevation max=0.1 to 0.15 ft/ft
• Elevators and stairs in the control of the
parking are needed.
• Mechanical garages that they utilize same
form of electric or hydraulic elevators and
machinery to position cars in stalls .
• Min number of employees .
• Attain a greater number of storage levels.
• It can build in a small parcels of land no
damage by attendant .
• 11.3 Pedestrian And Bicycle Facilities
Design
• 11.3.1 Pedestrian Facilities :
• To accommodate and protect pedestrian

movements (from accidents and traffic
congestion )
• Elements of separation between pedestrians &
traffic:
a) Horizontal :sidewalk , displaced sidewalk grids.
b) Vertical :tunnels under highway , bridges over
highway.
c) Temporal: all walk phase of traffic signals.
(see Table 11.7 for elements of separation)
d) Connectors: stairs , ramps , elevators.
• Pedestrian flow is defined as the number of

persons passing a given point in a unit of time
• Pedestrian density: tenths of a pedestrian per
square foot (meter)
• Under free flow, speed=4ft/sec(1.22m/sec)
=1.5-2 ft/sec under capacity conditions .
• Pedestrian speed , flow, and density are
interrelated.
• Pedestrian traffic jams with zero flow can occur
upstream of bottlenecks such as gates and
tunnel entrances .
• Individual area occupancy = 3.25m2/person
• see Fig 11.15 below for body ellipse configuration.
• Table 11.8 below show walkway level of service.
• Types of facilities for regulating and protecting

pedestrian movements :
1.Sidewalks: see Fig 11.17 for typical cross-section
2.Crosswalks: to guide pedestrian in the proper path
, it markings at signalized intersections.
Figure 64
Figure 63 : Land parking
Figure 62 : Parking
Figure 61 : Parking
Figure 60 : Parking
Figure 57 : Parking
Figure 58 : Multistory
• These markings should be solid while marking
both edges of the crosswalk.
3. Traffic signals:
• The purpose is to control pedestrian traffic .
• Cycle length of traffic signals should take into
consideration pedestrian volume , roadway
width are so forth.
4.Pedestrian barriers:
The should be used to prevent pedestrian
crossings of major roadways at points where
such crossings of major road
such crossings of major roadways at points where
such crossing could cause hazard .
• They are frequently used to channel
pedestrians into pedestrian facilities, such as
overpasses or tunnel.
5.Highway lighting :
• It is very successful in reducing pedestrian
accidents.
6.Safety zones and islands: these are pedestrian
use only .
• They should be:
1.At least 4ft wide & 12 ft long.
2.Designed by:
a)Paint b)raised bars
c)Mushroom buttons d)curbs
e)Guidepost f)pavement edge
7.Pedestrian tunnel and overpasses:

• To separate pedestrian and vehicle traffic.
• Overpasses are less expensive and safer for
pedestrians the tunneling .
• Pedestrian convenience is an important
consideration in designing such separation
structures (barriers should be used here).
• 11.3.2 Bicycle Facilities

• The bicycle offers an excellent opportunity to
solve the growing transportation problem in
urban areas.
• Bicycle trips are:
a)Schools
b)Colleges
c) Universities
d)Recreational facilities .
• Safety and traffic regulations are of immediate

concern to the bicyclist .
• Bikeway planning should follow basically that of
other modes of urban transportation.
• There are three classes of bikeways:
Class I: A bikeway completely separated from
vehicular traffic and within an independent
right of way or the right of way of another
facilities .(see Fig. 11.18)
Class II: It is part of the roadway or shoulder and

delineated by pavement marking or barriers
( the imaginary of bikeways).(see Fig11.18)
Class III: Any bike way that shares its traffic right of
way with motor vehicles and id designated by
signaling only ( see Fig11.18).
• Level of service in bike way operations is defined
as a qualitative measure of the effects of speed ,
travel time, safety, and maneuverability.
• level A: free flow , low volumes , free choice of
speed (average speed =12mph)
• Level B: stable flow , significant volumes ,
reduction of speed ( average speed = 10mph)
• Level C:restricted flow , speed (average
speed=8mph).
• Design characteristics of the bikeway
1.Design speed : 20mph for safe and comfortable,

on down grades >7% 30mph is recommended
,up grades >3% 15mph is used .
2.Stopping sight distance: it is based on a
mounted cyclist eyes = 4.5 ft –obstacle=0ft
3.Grades :it depends upon the exiting terrain (see
Fig 11.19 below)
4. Width clearances: see Fig 11.20 below
5. Horizontal curves: the design criteria include
a) Design speed b) radius of curve
c)Super elevation
For 10- speed bike & 1800 turns
R= 1.528v +2.2
v= design speed (mph) & R =curve radius in H
Figure 25 : Bike signals
Figure 23 : Pedestrian
Figure 21
6.Curve widening : additional maneuvering space is
required to reduce potential bicycle and
pedestrian conflicts ( max. widening >4ft).
7.Intersections: to avoid conflicts between cyclist

and motor vehicles at intersections, special
turning lanes should be provided for bike .
8.Grade separation : to eliminate bicycle conflict

with motor vehicles.
9.Traffic control devices :
All traffic control devices , including signs,

markings, signals , supplied to bicycle facilities
would confirm to the MUTCD’s standards
Figure 36
Figure 35 : Control devices
Figure 31 : Control device
Figure 11 : Radar measures speed
Chapter 12
Highway Safety
 Traffic accidents take a tremendous toll of
human lives ,personal property.
 1978 ,(18300000) highway traffic accidents ,
(49400) deaths ,(1400000)personal injuries,
(16000000) property damage, (total=$34.3
billion).
 Highway design engineers are responsible.
 A traffic accidents may be defined as a failure
in the performance of one or more of the
driving components which results in property
damage and/or bodily injury or death.
 The costs of highway accident is extremely
difficult to determine. There are:
1. Direct and indirect.
2. on-site and off-site.
3. Immediate and future.
4. Cash and noncash.
5. Tangible and intangible.
 Safe highways are expensive.
 Major causes of accidents:
1. Vehicle. 2. road. 3. driver.
4. pedestrian.
12.1 The Vehicle
 Defective vehicle is a creator of accidents.
 The age of the vehicle probably is a factor in
automobile accidents.
 Type of design are:
1. Safety belts.
2. Safer door latches.
3. Non shattering windshields.
 Improvements of headlamp , brakes ,steering
,exhaust system ,stop lights ,emergency flasher.
 Driver visibility is factor in safety ,the
improvements are:
1. Wrap around windshields.
2. Narrowed roof support pillars.
3. Side and rear windows have a large area.
4. Defogging and defrosting systems.
5. Seat adjustments.
6. Airbag (H is not good sometimes).
7. Studded snow tires.
12.2 The Road
 Highway improvement is a key factor in
preventing accidents.
 The highway should have :
1. Better sight distances.
2. Wider pavements
3. Fewer roadside obstacles.
 Types of improvements:
1. Reconstruction of intersection (channelizing ,turning
road).
2. Improve vertical & horizontal alignment.
3. Installation of special signs & markings.
4. Resurfacing.
5. Flattening of slopes.
6. Installation of median barriers ,guard rails.
12.3 The Driver

 Driver is the most important components of
the highways.
 The drunken driving is the most serious of all
(50% of all deaths)(breath test)(blood test).
 Many accidents are a result of the:
1. Drivers judgment or hazardous movements
2. [speeding ,passing on the hill].
 Drugs are another alarming cause of traffic
accidents.
 Education is effective in preventing accidents.
 Effective enforcement of traffic regulation is
necessary.
12.4 The Pedestrian
 Each year greater numbers of people lose
their life any many of them are pedestrians.
 It is difficult to promote safe pedestrian
movements because:
1. “Outside the law” consideration.
2. Regulations have been directed towards vehicles.
3. Speed pedestrian facilities are not uses often.
4. The pedestrian population includes many persons
who are not familiar with traffic laws.
5. Factor of age. Very young people are often carless.
 In 1978 in U.S.A ,32% of the victims were
pedestrians.
 The problems are :
1. Exist at intersections.
2. Crossing between intersection.
3. Drinking pedestrian.
4. Elderly.
5. Average speed are increasing yearly.
6. Portion of streets are not lighted.
7. Walking speed.
8. Makes judgment errors in obeying traffic signals.
 The reason for a pedestrian safety program is
to reduce the number and severity accidents.
 Elements of safety program:

1. Engineering.
2. Education.
3. Enforcement.
 Six months of education usually should

precede enforcement.
12.5 The Need For Accident Information
 The purpose of accident analysis are to find the
possible causes of accidents related to:
1. Vehicles. 2. drivers. 3. roadways 4. Pedestrians.
 To solve problems ,one must the causes of the
problem
 Research is the best technique to know the
problems.
 The research requires:
1. Good data collection. 2. recording.
3. analysis. 4. implementation.
 Purpose of accidents data:
1. To determine accident location and description.
2. To prepare files.
3. To reduce accident summary.
4. To make copies to agencies.
5. To suggest legislative changes.
6. To establish research needs.
7. To find relation between accident factor.
 Accidents are reported by the police ,the
driver and the owner.
 The typical report contains same useful data.
 See Figure 12-2
Figure 1 : High speed accident
Figure 2 : Accident caused by drunk
Figure 3
Figure 4 : Road traffic accident
Figure 5 : Sudden stopping accident
Figure 6 : Very high speed
Figure 7 : Bus accident in Jordan
Figure 8 : Cellphone accident
Figure 10 : High speed accident
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Figure 14
Figure 15 : bus accident in Jordan
Figure 16
Figure 17 : Passing accident
Figure 18
Figure 19 : Truck accident
Figure 20 : Killing accident
Figure 21
Figure 22
23
Figure 24
Figure 25 : Pedestrian accident
Figure 26 : Intersection accident
Figure 27
Figure 28 : Car crash
Figure 29
Figure 30
Figure 31
Figure 32 : Bridge accident
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
Figure 36 : High turning speed accident
Figure 37 : Multi accidents
Figure 38 : Bike accident
Figure 39
Figure 40
Figure 41 : Comulative
Figure 42 : Container accident
Figure 43
Figure 44 : Sliding accident
Figure 45
Figure 46 : Bike accident
Figure 47

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PART TWO

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 1

The automobile is widely used because of its almost

Highway transportation has profound effects on

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 2

 Some highway transportation problems are:

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 3

 See Fig. 6.1 for general highway planning

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 7

1. Studies to determine the condition of existing

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 9

 Functional classification contributes to the

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 10

b. Establishing the basis for assigning levels of service .

d. Determining the resulting needs.

e. Establishing priority of work .

f. Selecting the most important appropriate level of

g. Determining financing policies.

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 11

a. They are secondary county roads & local.

b. They are provide access to abutting property .

c. The volume of traffic is usually quite low .

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 12

a. These are secondary roads.

b.They are provide access to higher-type roads.

c. These include primary county highways and

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 13

a. They provide for high volume traffic between

a. They connect large population centers

c. Provide no access to abutting property .

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 15

1- Obtaining sufficient data.

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 16

1- Location of boundary lines of all governmental

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 17

8- Services provided by highways (mail, school

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 18

A.Road life studies

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 19

2.Behavior and desires of drivers .

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 20

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 21

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 22

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 23

• In addition to the volume counts, vehicles

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 24

• Origin and designation studies are conducted to

• After that traffic maps and flow maps can be

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 26

a) Road use b) road life

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 27

• Sufficiency studies are conducted in order to

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 28

• The purpose of HNS is to provide a factual

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 29

• The results will be determine the adequacy of

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 30

• The fiscal study also investigated the portion

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 31

• Priority programming is the rational selection

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 32

• One of the first step is to identify and describe

11/07/21 Khedaywi & Omari 33