SWITCHING & WIRELESS

SWITCHING
 Introduction to switching
 VLAN: Virtual Local Area Network
• Types of Vlans
• Advantages of Vlans
• Types of Connections
• Vlan Tagging(Frame tagging technics)
• Types of Vlan Tagging
• Methods of indicating the packets travels
between switches
 SWITCHING & WIRELESS

Vlan Limitations
Requirements to set up Vlans
 The Virtual Trunk Protocol (VTP)
• The VTP Modes
• VTP Configuration
• Switches Classifications
 Design and implementation of vlans
 Security(Network security)
• Introduction
• Access Control List
 SWITCHING & WIRELESS

• Filtering Traffic using Access Control List

• Access Control list types
• Access control list configurations
• Important terms
 VLAN

Virtual LAN, Group of devices on one or more LANs

that are configured (using management software) so
that they can communicate as if they were attached
to the same wire, when in fact they are located on a
number of different LAN segments. Because VLANs
are based on logical instead of physical connections,
they are extremely flexible
 Types of Vans

There are two types of VLANs

1. Frame Based Vlans
This kind of VLANs is used in the Ethernet networks and it
uses the frame tagging technique. The two main types of the
frame tagging are ISL (Inter Switch Link)and IEEE 802.10.
2. Cell Based Vlans
This type of VLANs is used in the ATM networks with LAN
Emulation also known as LANE.LANE allows the
computers in the LAN segment to communicate by using
the ATM networks without requiring special hardware or
software configurations
 Advantages of Vlans

VLANs provide several advantages over a single large

network.
 Better Performance:
• A switch can direct a packet much faster than a
router since it doesn't spend time reading the
content of the packet.
• VLANs allow the network administrator to direct
data using only switches.
• It can increase the performance by reducing the size
of collision domains
 Advantages of Vlans

• Grouping users into logical networks will also

increase performance by limiting broadcast traffic to
users performing similar functions or within
individual workgroups.
• less traffic will need to be routed, and the latency
added by routers will be reduce
 Easy Management :
• VLANs are easier to manage because they allow the
network administrator to group IP address together
 Advantages of Vlans

VLANs provide an easy, flexible, less costly way to

modify logical groups in changing environments
VLANs make large networks more manageable by
allowing centralized configuration of devices located
in physically diverse locations.
 Physical Layer Independence :
• VLANs are independent of their location, meaning
that two switches can be interconnected so they
function on the same VLAN even if they are on
different continents
 Advantages of Vlans

 High Security
• VLANs are more secure because switches will send and
receive information only to and from the VLAN on which
they are designed to transmit
• VLAN can also be configured to grant or restrict security
privileges to certain users.
 Low cost
• Routers require powerful processors to read and route
packets on a network; this makes them more expensive
and less efficient than switches. Switches use much
smaller processors and therefore use less electricity.
 Advantages of Vlans( summary)

The main advantages of the VLAN includes high

performance, simplified network administration,
security, low cost and the creation of the virtual
groups to avoid the collision and data loss in the
network. VLAN controls the bandwidth allocations
and provides the flexibility and ease of work to the
users.  In the VLAN, the computers do not need to be
physically located at the same place. Though it is a
logical entity it is created and configured through the
software.
 Types of Connections

Devices on a VLAN can be connected in three ways :

1 .Trunk Link (port)
All the devices connected to a trunk link, including
workstations, must be VLAN aware. All frames on a
trunk link must have a special header attached.
These special frames are called tagged frames
Types of Connections(Next)
 Types of Connections(Next)

2. Access Link(Port)

An access link connects a VLAN unaware device to the
port of a VLAN aware bridge. All frames on access
links must be implicitly tagged (untagged) The
VLAN unaware device can be a LAN segment with
VLAN unaware workstations or it can be a number of
LAN segments containing VLAN unaware devices
(legacy LAN).
Types of Connections(Next)
 Types of Connections(Next)

3 Hybrid Link
This is a combination of the previous two links. This is
a link where both VLAN aware and VLAN unaware
devices are attached . A hybrid link can have both
tagged and untagged frames, but all the frames for a
specific VLAN must be either tagged or untagged.
Types of Connections(Next)
 Vlan Tagging

Vlan tagging, also known as frame tagging

When frames are sent across the network, there

needs to be a way of indicating to which VLAN the
frame belongs, so that the bridge will forward the
frames only to those ports that belong to that VLAN,
instead of to all output ports as would normally have
been done. This information is added to the frame in
the form of a tag header. In addition, the tag header:
 Vlan Tagging(Next)

allows user priority information to be specified

Allows source routing control information to be
specified
Indicates the format of MAC addresses
 Types of Vlans Tagging

1.InterSwitch Link (ISL)

ISL is a Cisco propriety protocol used for Fast
Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet links only. The
protocol can be used in various equipments such as
switch ports, router interfaces, server interface cards
to create a trunk to a server and much more.
ISL is capable of supporting up to 1000 VLANs and
does not introduce any delays in data transfers
between Trunk Links.
 Types of Vlans Tagging (Next)

2. IEEE 802.1q(dot1q)
The 802.1q standard was created by the IEEE group
to address the problem breaking large networks into
smaller and manageable ones through the use of
VLANs
As with all open standards the IEEE 802.1q tagging
method is by far the most popular and commonly
used even in Cisco oriented network installations
mainly for
 Types of Vlans Tagging (Next)

compatibility with other equipment and future

upgrades that might tend towards different vendors
The benefits of IEEE 802.1Q over ISL:
Support of up to 4096 VLANs
 Methods of indicating the packets travels
between switches

Two methods exist:

Implicit
Explicit
Implicit :VLAN membership is indicated by the MAC address. In
this case, all switches that support a particular VLAN must share a
table of member MAC addresses.
Explicit: A tag is added to the packet to indicate VLAN membership.
Cisco ISL and the IEEE 802.1q VLAN specifications both use this
method.
When the packet travels to other switches, the determination of VLAN
membership for that packet can be either implicit (using the MAC
address) or explicit (using a tag that was added by the first switch)..
 Vlan Limitations

Broadcast limitations : In order to handle broadcast traffic in an ATM VLAN

environment it is necessary to have a special server that is an integrated part of
the ATM infrastructure. This server has limitations in the number of broadcasts
that may be forwarded. Some network protocols that will be running within
individual VLANs, such as IPX and AppleTalk, make extensive use of broadcast
traffic
Device limitations: The number of Ethernet addresses than can be supported
by each edge device is 500. This represents a distribution of about 20 devices per
Network 21 port. These numbers are actual technical limitations that could be
further reduced due to performance requirements of attached devices.
Port constraints:
If a departmental hub or switch is connected to a Network 21 port, every port on
that hub must belong to the same VLAN. Hubs do not have the capability to
provide VLANs to individual ports, and VLANs cannot be extended beyond the
edge device ports even if a switch capable of supporting VLANs is attached
 Requirements to set up Vlans

The switches deployed in the network either must

comply with IEEE 802.1Q standards or must have a
vendor-specific implementation of VLANs.
For an end station to support multiple VLANs, it
must be able to dynamically register or must be
statically configured to belong to a VLAN.
If an end station cannot register or cannot be
configured to belong to a VLAN, the end station can
belong only to one VLAN. This VLAN is configured
on the switch port to which the end station connects.
 The Virtual Trunk Protocol (VTP)

 Def: VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP) is a Layer 2 messaging protocol

that provides a method for the distribution and management of the
VLAN database from a centralized server in a network segment.
Routers do not forward VTP updates.
 When a new VLAN is created and configured on a switch without the
VTP protocol enabled, this must be manually replicated to all switches
on the network so they are all aware of the newly created VLAN. This
means that the administrator must configure each switch separately, a
task that requires a lot of time and adds a considerable amount of
overhead depending on the size of the network
 To resolve this issue, Cisco created VTP to automate many of the VLAN
configuration functions. VTP ensures that VLAN configuration is
consistently maintained across the network and reduces the task of
VLAN management and monitoring.
 The Virtual Trunk Protocol (VTP)

VTP is a client/server messaging protocol that adds,

deletes, and renames VLANs in a single VTP domain.
All switches under a common administration are
part of a domain. Each domain has a unique name.
VTP switches only share VTP messages with other
switches in the same domain
Two different versions of VTP exist: Version 1 and
Version 2. Version 1 is the default and it is not
compatible with Version 2. All switches must be
configured with the same version.
 The Virtual Trunk Protocol (VTP)

The VTP Modes: 3 types of the VTP modes

VTP Server mode
VTP Client mode
VTP Transparent mode
Note: By default, all switches are servers. It is a good practice to
have at least two switches configured as servers on a network,
to provide backup and redundancy.
With VTP, each switch advertises messages on its trunk ports.
Messages include the management domain, configuration
revision number, known VLANs, and parameters for each
VLAN. These advertisement frames are sent to a multicast
address so that all neighbor devices receive the frames.
 The Virtual Trunk Protocol (VTP)
VTP Mode Description
VTP Mode Server The default mode for all switches supporting
VTP. You can create, modify, and delete VLANs
and
specify other configuration parameters (such as
VTP version)
for the entire VTP domain.
VTP servers advertise their VLAN configurations
to other switches in the same VTP domain and
synchronize their VLAN
configurations with other switches based on
advertisements received over trunk
links. VLAN configurations are saved in NVRAM.
VTP Mode Client Behaves like a VTP server, but you cannot create, change,
or delete VLANs on a VTP client. VLAN configurations are
saved in NVRAM.
VTP Transparent You can create, modify, and delete VLANs on a
switch in VTP transparent mode. VLAN
configurations are saved in NVRAM, but they are
not advertised to other switches.
 VTP Configuration

• All Cisco switches are configured to be VTP servers

by default. To configure VTP, first you
have to configure the domain name you want to use.
• And of course, once you configure theVTP
information on a switch, you need to verify it. In the
following example, I’ll set the S1.switch to vtp server,
the VTP domain to IT, and the VTP password to ICT
 VTP Configuration(server mode)

S1#config t
S1#(config)#vtp mode server
S1(config)#vtp domain IT
S1(config)#vtp password ICT
S1(config)#do show vtp password
S1(config)#do show vtp status
 VTP Configuration(Client mode)

Let’s go to the Core and S2 switches and set them into

the IT VTP domain. It is very important to remember
that the VTP domain name is case sensitive VTP is not
forgiving one teeny small mistake and it just won’t work
Core#config t
Core(config)#vtp mode client
Core(config)#vtp domain IT
Core(config)#vtp password ICT
S1(config)#do show vtp password
Core(config)#do show vtp status
 VTP Configuration(Transparent mode)

Switch#config t
Switch(config)#vtp mode transparent
Switch(config)#vtp domain IT
Core(config)#vtp password ICT
S1(config)#do show vtp password
Switch(config)# do show vtp status
 Classifications of switches

Switches are classified based on:

Form factor
Configuration options
1.Form factor:
Desktop, not mounted in an enclosure, typically intended to be
used in a home or office environment outside of a wiring closet
Rack mounted
Chassis with swappable (switch module) cards. E.g. Alcatel's
Omni Switch 9000; Cisco Catalyst switch 4500 and 6500; 3Com
7700, 7900E, 8800.
DIN rail mounted, normally seen in industrial environments or
panels
 Classifications of switches

2.Configuration options:
Unmanaged switches: These switches have no configuration interface or options.
They are plug and play they are typically the least expensive switches, found in home
or small businesses. They can be desktop or rack mounted.
Managed switches: These switches have one or more methods to modify the
operation of the switch. Common management methods include: a command-line
interface (CLI) accessed via serial console, telnet or Secure Shell an embedded
Simple Network Management Protocol allowing management from a remote console
or management station, Two sub-classes of managed switches are marketed today:
Smart (or intelligent) switches: these are managed switches with a limited set of
management features. Allow configuration of basic settings, such as VLANs, port-
bandwidth and duplex.
Enterprise Managed (or fully managed) switches: These have a full set of
management features, including CLI, web interface. They may have additional
features to manipulate configurations, such as the ability to display, modify, backup
and restore configurations.
 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLANs

Designing and building a network is not a simple job. VLANs are no

exception to this rule, in fact that they require a more sophisticated
approach because of the variety of protocols used to maintain and
administer them
VLANs are usually created by the network administrator, assigning
each port of every switch to a VLAN. Depending on the network
infrastructure and security policies, the assignment of VLANs can be
designed and implemented using two different methods:
Static Method
Dynamic Method
These two methods are also known as VLAN memberships
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLANs

 Static VLAN membership is perhaps the most widely

used method because of the relatively small
administration overhead and security it provides.
With Static VLANs, the administrator will assign
each port of the switch to one VLAN. Once this is
complete, they can simply connect each device or
workstation to the appropriate port.
• Static VLANs are certainly more secure than
traditional switches while also considerably easy to
configure and monitor
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLANs

In addition, Static VLANs have another strong point:

you are able to control where your users move within a
large network. By assigning specific ports on your
switches throughout your network, you are able to
control access and limit the network resources to
which your users are able to use.
 Dynamic VLANs were introduced to grant the
flexibility and complexity that Static VLANs did not
provide. Dynamic VLANs are quite rare because of
their requirements and initial administrative overhead
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VLANs

Dynamic VLANs, as opposed to Static VLANs, do not

require the administrator to individually configure
each port, but instead, a central server called the
VMPS (VLAN Member Policy Server). The VMPS is
used to handle the on-the-spot port configuration of
every switch participating on the VLAN network
The VMPS server contains a database of all
workstation MAC addresses, along with the associated
VLAN the MAC address belongs to. This way, we
essentially have a VLAN-to-MAC address mapping
 SECURITY

Introduction: All the Networks need the Security to

ensure that only authorized users access resources.
Security within an enterprise network is extremely
critical. It is important to prevent access by
unauthorized users and protect the network from
various attacks. Unauthorized users can modify,
destroy, or steal sensitive data on servers.
Through traffic filtering, an administrator controls
traffic in various segments of the network. Filtering is
the process of analyzing the contents of a packet to
determine if the packet should be allowed or blocked.
 SECURITY

Access Control List

One of the most common methods of traffic filtering is
the use of access control lists (ACLs). ACLs can be
used to manage and filter traffic that enters a
network, as well as traffic that exits a network. An
ACL ranges in size from one statement that allows or
denies traffic from one source, to hundreds of
statements that allow or deny packets from multiple
sources. The primary use of ACLs is to identify the
types of packets to accept or deny.
 SECURITY

Filtering Traffic using Access Control List

Packet filtering can deny or permit traffic based on:
Source IP address
Destination IP address
MAC addresses
Protocols
Application type
Devices most commonly used to provide traffic filtering are:
Firewalls built into integrated routers
Dedicated security appliances
Servers
 SECURITY

Types of Access Control list: 3 types of ACLS

Standard Access Control list: The Standard ACL is the
simplest of the three types. When creating a standard IP ACL, the
ACLs filter based on the source IP address of a packet. Standard
ACLs permit or deny based on the entire protocol, such as IP. So,
if a host device is denied by a standard ACL, all services from that
host are denied. This type of ACL is useful for allowing all
services from a specific user, or LAN, access through a router
while denying other IP addresses access. Standard ACLs are
identified by the number assigned to them. For access lists
permitting or denying IP traffic, the identification number can
range from 1 to 99 and from 1300 to 1999.
 SECURITY

Extended Access Control list

Extended ACLs filter not only on the source IP
address but also on the destination IP address,
protocol, and port numbers. Extended ACLs are used
more than Standard ACLs because they are more
specific and provide greater control. The range of
numbers for Extended ACLs is from 100 to 199 and
from 2000 to 2699.
 SECURITY

Named ACLs (NACLs) are either Standard or

Extended format that are referenced by a descriptive
name rather than a number.
Configuration Process of ACLs.
 SECURITY

This process requires two steps:

1.Creation
2.Application

1.ACL Creation
Enter global configuration mode. Using the access-list command, enter the
access control list statements. Enter all statements with the same ACL
number until the access control list is complete.
The syntax for the Standard ACL statement is:
Access-list [access-list-number] [deny /permit] [source address] [source-
wildcard][log]
Example: # access-list 55 permit 192.168.77.0 0.0.0.63
To delete an ACL, use the command:
#no access-list [list number]
 SECURITY

The syntax for the Standard ACL Extended is:

Access-list [access-list-number] [deny /permit]
[source address] [source-wildcard] [Destination
-address] [Destination-wildcard [log]
Example: access-list 101 deny ip 192.168.1.0
0.0.0.255 192.168.2.0 0.0.0.255
 SECURITY

2.ACL Application
An ACL does not filter traffic until it has been applied, or assigned, to an interface
Assign an ACL to one or more interfaces, specifying either inbound traffic or
outbound traffic
Apply a standard ACL as close to the destination as possible.
R(config-if)#ip access-group access list number [in | out]
The following commands place access-list 7 on the R Fa0/0 interface filtering
inbound traffic:
R(config)#interface fastethernet 0/0
R(config-if)#ip access-group 7 in
The default direction for an ACL applied to an interface is out. Even though out is
the default, it is very important to specify the direction to avoid confusion and to
ensure that traffic filters in the correct direction.
To remove an ACL from an interface while leaving the ACL intact, use the no ip
access-group interface command
 Important terms

Broadcast Domain:
The set of all devices that will receive broadcast
frames originating from any device within the set.
Broadcast domains can be bounded by VLANs in a
stand-alone environment. In an internetworking
environment, they are typically bounded by routers
because routers do not forward broadcast frames
 Important terms

Collision
In Ethernet, the result of two nodes that transmit
simultaneously. The frames from each device impact
and are damaged when they meet on the physical
media
Collision Domain
In Ethernet, the network area within which frames
that have collided are propagated. Repeaters and
hubs propagate collisions; LAN switches, bridges
and routers do not.
 Important terms

Frame
The logical grouping of information sent as a data link
layer unit over a transmission medium. Often refers to
the header and trailer, used for synchronization and
error control, which surround the user data contained in
the unit.
Packet
A logical grouping of information that includes a header
containing control information and user data, packets
are most often used to refer to network layer units of
data.
 Important terms

IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. The IEEE is
a professional organization whose activities include the
development of communications and network standards.
IEEE LAN standards are the predominant LAN standards
today.
Latency
Delay between the time a device requests access to a network
and the time it is granted permission to transmit. It is also
the delay between the time when a device receives a frame
and the time that frame is forwarded out the destination port
 WIRELESS NETWORKS

A wireless network enables people to communicate and

access applications and information without wires. This
provides freedom of movement and the ability to extend
applications to different parts of a building, city, or nearly
anywhere in the world. Wireless networks allow people to
interact with e-mail or browse the Internet from a location
that they prefer.
Many types of wireless communication systems exist, but a
distinguishing attribute of a wireless network is that
communication takes place between computer devices.
These devices include personal digital assistants (PDAs),
laptops, personal computers (PCs), servers, and printers.
 WIRELESS NETWORKS

Computer devices have processors, memory, and a means of

interfacing with a particular type of network. Traditional cell phones
don't fall within the definition of a computer device; however, newer
phones and even audio headsets are beginning to incorporate
computing power and network adapters. Eventually, most electronics
will offer wireless network connections.
As with networks based on wire, or optical fiber, wireless networks
convey information between computer devices. The information can
take the form of e-mail messages, web pages, database records,
streaming video or voice.
In most cases, wireless networks transfer data, such as e-mail
messages and files, but advancements in the performance of wireless
networks is enabling support for video and voice communications as
well.
 TYPES OF WIRELESS NETWORKS

1. GSM 900 Antenna 890 MHz

WLANS: Wireless Local Area Networks
WLANS allow users in a local area, such as a university campus or
library, to form a network or gain access to the internet. A
temporary network can be formed by a small number of users
without the need of an access point; given that they do not need
access to network resources.
WPANS: Wireless Personal Area Networks
The two current technologies for wireless personal area networks
are Infra Red (IR) and Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15). These will allow
the connectivity of personal devices within an area of about 30
feet. However, IR requires a direct line of site and the range is less.
TYPES OF WIRELESS NETWORKS

2.Wi-Fi NETWORKING SYSTEM

WMANS: Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks
This technology allows the connection of multiple
networks in a metropolitan area such as different
buildings in a city, which can be an alternative or backup
to laying copper or fiber cabling.
WWANS: Wireless Wide Area Networks
These types of networks can be maintained over large
areas, such as cities or countries, via multiple satellite
systems or antenna sites looked after by an ISP. These
types of systems are referred to as 2G (2nd Generation)
systems.
 EVOLUTION OF WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES IN MOBILE
COMMUNICATION

Mobile wireless communication system has

gone through several evolution stages in the past
few decades after the introduction of the first-
generation mobile network in early 1980s. Due
to huge demand for more connections
worldwide, mobile communication standards
advanced rapidly to support more users. Let’s
take a look on the evolution stages of wireless
technologies for mobile communication.
Nordic Mobile Telephone(NMT) and is an analog mobile
telephone network that was jointly built up in the Nordic
countries
The cell sizes in an NMT network range from 2 km to 30
km. With smaller ranges the network can service more
simultaneous callers
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) is a standard
system for Analog signal cellular telephone service in the
United States and is also used in other countries. It is based
on the initial electromagnetic radiation spectrum allocation
for cellular service by the Federal Communications
Commission
Total Access Communication System (TACS) and
ETACS are mostly-obsolete variants of
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) which was
announced as the choice for the first two UK national
cellular systems in February 1983
The Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM) is a standard developed by
the European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI) to describe the protocols for second-generation
(2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile devices
such as mobile phones and tablets.
GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service and
it is a technology enhancement for 2G GSM networks
that connects your mobile phone to the internet. The
original 2G GSM networks were circuit-switched and
were not able to provide efficient data services.
Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
(also known as Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), IMT Single
Carrier (IMT-SC), or Enhanced Data rates for Global
Evolution) is a digital mobile phone technology that
allows improved data transmission rates as a
backward-compatible extension of GSM.
UMTS or the Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System is a third generation
wireless network technology which allows speeds of
up to 2Mbps. UMTS is based on the WCDMA
technology, which is why these terms have become
interchangeable
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS) is a third generation mobile cellular system
for networks based on the GSM standard.
UMTS provides a clear evolutionary path to high-
speed packet access (HSPA). HSPA refers to the
combination of high-speed downlink packet access
(HSDPA) and high-speed uplink packet access
(HSUPA). HSDPA allows data rates up to 14.4 Mbit/s
in the downlink.
HSPA+, a high-speed technology that can deliver
peak download rates of 21 Mbps per carrier, will usher
in a new era for mobile broadband, making a vast
range of applications and services available to
consumers on the go.
HSPA+ or Evolved High Speed Packet Access, in fact,
has speeds comparable to the newer LTE networks
On the other hand, LTE, or Long Term Evolution, is
considered a “true” 4G network. Theoretical speeds
boast downlink speeds of 300Mbps and uploads of
75Mbps
Code Division Multiple Access 2000 (CDMA2000) is
a third generation (3G) standard developed by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU). This
protocol uses CDMA access to send voice and data
and signals between mobile phones and cell sites
CDMA2000 is a family of technology for 3G mobile
cellular communications for transmission of voice,
data and signals. It supports mobile communications
at speeds between 144Kbps and 2Mbps
4G LTE Advanced (also known as LTE-A) is basically
what it sounds – an advanced version of 4G, one
that's faster than standard 4G. You can think of it a bit
like 4.5G or a half step between 4G and 5G, and it's
something that many networks started rolling out in the
years before 5G launched.
Long Term Evolution-Advanced networks can deliver up to 1
GB per second of data, compared to a maximum of 300 MB
per second over LTE networks.
LTE-Advanced Pro (LTE-A Pro) is a version of the LTE
standard, and is also known as “4.5G”. Delivering significant
data speed increases, plus improved network efficiency and
capacity, it is a step-up again from LTE-Advanced.
LTE Advanced Pro (LTE-A Pro, also known as 4.5G, 4.5G
Pro, 4.9G, Pre-5G, 5G Project) is a name for 3GPP release
13 and 14. It is an evolution of LTE Advanced (LTE-A)
cellular standard supporting data rates in excess of 3
Gbit/s using 32-carrier aggregation
LTE/NR interworking is a feature of 5G that enables it to:
leverage 4G deployments when deploying 5G on higher
frequency (co-sited and non-co-sited) combine high and
low frequency access to provide robustness against
spotty 5G coverage. increase capacity and performance
by offloading User Equipment (UEs) from 4G to 5G
LTE: Just introduced support for licensed spectra at 3.5
GHz and unlicensed spectra at 5 GHz. NR: It's first
release supports licensed-spectrum operation from
below 1 GHz up to 52.6 GHz and planning is ongoing for
extension to unlicensed spectra.
Vehicle to Everything (V2X) is a vehicular
communication system that supports the
transfer of information from a vehicle to moving
parts of the traffic system that may affect the
vehicle. The main purpose of V2X technology is to
improve road safety, energy savings, and traffic
efficiency on the roads.
Virtual Reality (VR) is a communication medium
that makes virtual experiences feel real and appear
unmediated. Since the 1960s, VR has been used by
the military and medicine for training and
simulations, but VR has also become fertile ground
to evaluate social and psychological dynamics in
academic settings