UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA

SCHOOL OF MEDICINE
MED 1106 – PHYSIOLOGY I
DR KALIMA THOMPSON
SPECIAL SENSES
VISION
 The Eye
 A highly specialized sensory organ of photoreception

 Have photoreceptors that are modified dendrites of two types of nerve cells
I. Rod cells
II. Cone cells

 Detects light reflected off of objects

 Converts reflected light into electrical signals that are interpreted by the
occipital lobe of the brain
 The Eye

 The eyes detects visible light within the range of electromagnetic

spectrum

 Visible light exhibits colors

 The color of visible light depends on its wavelength

 An object can absorb certain wavelengths of visible light and reflect

others
 The Eye

 The object appears the color of the wavelength that is reflected

 A green apple, for instance, appears green because it reflects mostly green light
and absorbs most other wavelengths of visible light

 An object appears white because it reflects all wavelengths of visible light

 An object appears black because it absorbs all wavelengths of visible light

 Anatomy of the Eye
The eye is composed of three basic layers

1. The outer corneo-scleral layer

2. The intermediate uveal layer (uveal tract)

3. The inner retinal layer

 The Corneo-scleral Layer
 Forms a tough, fibroelastic capsule which supports the
eye
 The posterior five-sixths is the sclera which is opaque
and provides insertion for the extraocular muscles
 The anterior one-sixth, is the cornea, which is
transparent and has a smaller radius of curvature than
the sclera
 The cornea is the principal refracting medium of the
eye and roughly focuses an image onto the retina
 The focusing power of the cornea depends mainly on
the radius of curvature of its external surface
The Corneo-scleral Layer
 The Uveal Layer
 The middle layer

 A highly vascular layer

 Made up of three components

1. The choroid
2. The ciliary body
3. The iris
 The Uveal Layer
 The choroid
 located between the sclera and retina in the posterior five-sixths of the eye
 provides support for the retina
 heavily pigmented, thus functions in absorbing light which pass through the
retina
 The ciliary body
 merges posteriorly with the choroid
The iris
 the colored portion of the eyeball
 regulate the amount of light entering the eyeball through the pupil
 The Retinal Layer

 Photosensitive

 Forms the inner lining of most of the

posterior compartment of the eye

 Terminates along a scalloped line, the ora

serrata, behind the ciliary body

 Anterior to the ora serrata, continues as a non-

photosensitive epithelial layer which lines the
ciliary body and the posterior surface of the
iris
 Anatomy of the Eye (Review)

The wall of the eyeball consists of three layers

1. Fibrous tunic cornea
sclera
2. Vascular tunic
ciliary body choroid Iris
3. Retina
 Interior of the Eyeball

Divided into two cavities by means of the lens

1. The anterior cavity

2. The vitreous chamber

 The Interior of the Eyeball
The Anterior Cavity
 The space anterior to the lens

 Consists of two chambers filled with aqueous humor

1. The anterior chamber

lies between the cornea and the iris

2. The posterior chamber lies

behind the iris and in front of the zonular fibers and lens
 The Interior of the Eyeball
The Posterior Cavity
 Occupies approximately four-fifths of the eyeball

 Known as the vitreous chamber of the eyeball

 Located between the lens and the retina

 Contains the vitreous body, a transparent jellylike substance

 The vitreous body supports the retina flush against the choroid
giving it an even surface for the reception of clear images
 The Interior of the Eyeball
The Lens
 Positioned behind the pupil and iris, within the cavity of the eyeball

 Help in focusing images on the retina to facilitate clear vision

 Adjusts the focus to view near or distant objects

 Proteins called crystallins are found within the cells of the lens

 Crystallins make up the refractive media of the lens which normally is perfectly transparent and lacks
blood vessels

 Crystallins are enclosed by a clear connective tissue capsule and held in position by encircling zonular
fibers, which attach to the ciliary processes
 Accessory Structures of the Eye

Include
 The eyelids

The eyelashes

 The Eyebrows

 The lacrimal (tear-producing) apparatus

 The extrinsic eye muscles

 Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelids

 Protect the eyes during sleep

 Protect the eyes from excessive light and foreign objects

 Responsible for the spread of lubricating secretions over the

eyeballs
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelids
 Palpebral fissure
 the space between the upper and lower eyelids
 Exposes the eyeball
 The lateral commissure
 narrow and close to the temporal bone
 The medial commissure
 broad and near the nasal bone
 Lacrimal caruncle
a small reddish elevation in the medial commissure
 contains sebaceous glands and sudoriferous glands
 glands secrete a whitish material that accumulates sometimes in the medial commissure
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelids

 The tarsal plate

a thick fold of connective tissue that gives form and support
to the eyelids

 Tarsal or Meibomian glands

a row of elongated modified sebaceous glands
secrete a fluid that prevent the eyelids from adhering to each
other
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelids
 The conjunctiva
a thin, protective mucous membrane composed of nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium
 epithelium with numerous goblet cells that is supported by areolar connective
tissue
 Palpebral conjunctiva
 lines the inner layer of the eyelids
 Bulbar conjunctiva

 passes from the eyelids onto the surface of the eyeball, and covers the sclera
 does not cover the cornea
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelid Structure
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelashes and Eyebrows
 The eyelashes
project from the border of each eyelid
Sebaceous glands(sebaceous ciliary glands) are found at the base
of the hair follicles of the eyelashes and release a lubricating fluid
into the follicles

 The eyebrows
arch transversely above the upper eyelids
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
Lacrimal Apparatus
 A group of structures that produces and drains lacrimal fluid or tears

 The lacrimal glands, secrete lacrimal fluid

 Lacrimal fluid drains into 6–12 excretory lacrimal ducts then empty tears onto the surface
of the conjunctiva of the upper lid

 The tears then pass medially over the anterior surface of the eyeball to enter two small
openings called lacrimal puncta

 Tears then drain into two ducts, the lacrimal canals, which empties into the lacrimal sac
and then into the nasolacrimal duct
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
Lacrimal Apparatus
Lacrimal Fluid
 A watery solution containing salts, some mucus, and lysozyme

 Protects, cleans, lubricates, and moistens the eyeball

 Spreads medially over the surface of the eyeball by the blinking of the eyelids

 Each gland produces about 1 mL of lacrimal fluid per day (lacrimation)

 Tears are usually cleared away as fast as they are produced

 by evaporation
 by passing into the lacrimal canals and then into the nasal cavity
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Lacrimal Apparatus
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
The Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Six muscles move each eye

1. Superior rectus
2. Inferior rectus
3. Lateral rectus
4. Medial rectus
5. Superior oblique
6. Inferior oblique
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
The Extrinsic Eye Muscles

 Capable of moving the eye in almost any direction

 Supplied by cranial nerves III, IV, or VI

 The motor units in these muscles are small

 Some motor neurons serve only two or three muscle

The small motor units allows for smooth, precise, and rapid movement of the eyes

Neural circuits in the brain stem and cerebellum coordinate

and synchronize the movements of the eyes
Accessory Structures of the Eye
The Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Accessory Structures of the Eye
The Extrinsic Eye Muscles
 The Focusing System of the Eyes and Formation of Retinal Images

Three processes help us to understand how the eye forms clear

images of objects on the retina

1. The refraction or bending of light by the cornea

2. Constriction or narrowing of the pupil

3. The refraction or bending of light by the lens and

accommodation (change in shape of the lens)
 The Focusing System of the Eyes and Formation of Retinal Images
Refraction of Light Rays
 Light rays are refracted at the anterior and posterior surfaces of
the cornea and the anterior and posterior surfaces of the lens

 Refraction allows the image to focus onto the retina

 A focal point is produced as light rays are refracted

 The light rays cross and produce an inverted and reversed (right to left) image at the
focal point

 Images focused on the retina are inverted and undergo right-to-left reversal
The Focusing System of the Eyes and Formation of Retinal Images
Refraction of Light Rays
The Focusing System of the Eyes and Formation of Retinal Images
Refraction of Light Rays
 The Focusing System of the Eyes and Formation of Retinal Images
Refraction of Light Rays by Cornea

Cornea

 Lightrays enter the eye and are refracted at the anterior and posterior
surfaces

 Responsible for 75% of the total refraction of light

 Accommodation does occur

 Cannot adjust to refract light rays from near objects

 The Focusing System of the Eyes and Formation of Retinal Images
Constriction of the Pupil

 Occurs due to contraction of the circular muscle fibers of the iris

which plays a role in the formation of clear retinal images

 Constriction occurs simultaneously with accommodation and

prevents light rays from entering the eye through the periphery of
the lens

 Light rays entering at the periphery of the lens result in blurred

vision
 The Focusing System of the Eyes and Formation of Retinal Images
Refraction of Light Rays by Lens

Lens
 Both surfaces further refract the light rays to bring them into exact focus on the retina

 Provides 25% of the focusing power

 The lens bend parallel rays of distant objects just enough so that they fall exactly focused on
the central fovea

 Divergent rays of closer objects must be refracted more in order to be focused on the retina

 The additional refraction of divergent rays of closer objects is accomplished through a

process known as accommodation
 The Focusing System of the Eyes and Formation of Retinal Images
Refraction of Light Rays by the Lens
Accommodation
 The increase in the curvature of the lens for near vision

 Increase curvature of the lens leads to greater refraction of the light rays

 Viewing a close object, causes the ciliary muscle to contract

 Contraction of the ciliary muscle pulls the ciliary process and choroid forward toward the lens
and releases tension on the lens and zonular fibers

 The Lens become more spherical (convex), and increase its focusing power
The Focusing System of the Eyes and Formation of Retinal Images
Refraction of Light Rays by the Lens
Accommodation
The Focusing System of the Eyes and Formation of Retinal Images
Refraction of Light Rays by the Lens
Accommodation
The Focusing System of the Eyes and Formation of Retinal Images
Refraction of Light Rays by Lens
Accommodation
 The Retina

 Lines the posterior three-quarters of the eyeball and is the beginning

of the visual pathway

 Consists of
1. A pigmented layer
2. A neural layer
Layers of the Retina
 Photoreceptors
 Specialized cells that begin the
process by which light rays are
ultimately converted to nerve
impulses

 Two types of photoreceptors

1. Rods
2. Cones

 Each retina has about 6 million cones

and 120 million rods
 Photoreceptors
Rods

 Allow us to see in dim light, such as moonlight

 Donot provide color vision, thus, in dim light we see only black,
white, and various shades of gray
 Photoreceptors
Cones
 Stimulated by bright light, which produce color vision

 Three types
1. Blue cones - sensitive to blue light
2. Green cones - sensitive to green light
3. Red cones - sensitive to red light

 Color vision results from the stimulation of various combinations of

these three types of cones
 Photoreceptors

Photoreceptors Sensitivity Acuity Dark Colour

to Adaptation Vision
Light
Rods Lower visual
Low density acuity
light Adapt later No
(night vision) Not present in
fovea
Cones Higher visual
High intensity acuity
light Adapt first Yes
(day vision) Present in fovea
 Photoreceptors
Photopigments

 Integral colored proteins in the plasma membrane of the outer

segment of both rods and cones that undergoes structural changes
when it absorbs light

 Absorption of light by a photopigment is the first step in visual

transduction

 Transductionof light energy into a receptor potential occurs in the

outer segment of both rods and cones
 Photoreceptors
Photopigments

 All photopigments associated with vision contain two parts

 A glycoprotein known as opsin
 a derivative of vitamin A called retinal

 Retinal is the light-absorbing part of all visual photopigments

 There are four different opsins in the human retina

 one in the rods (rhodopsin)
 three in the cones (one in each of the three types of cones)
 Photoreceptors
Photopigments
Cyclical Bleaching and Regeneration of Photopigment
 Photoreceptors
Light and Dark Adaptation
Photoreceptors
Photoreception
 The Neuronal Pathway of Vision
 The axons of retinal ganglion cells in each eye exit the eyeball at the optic
disc and form the optic nerve on that side

 Axons from the nasal half of each retina cross the optic chiasm and continue to
the opposite thalamus

 Axons from the temporal half of each retina at the optic chiasm continue
directly to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus on the ipsilateral side

 Each optic tract is composed of crossed and uncrossed axons that project from
the optic chiasm to the thalamus on one side
 The Neuronal Pathway of Vision

 Axon collaterals of the retinal ganglion cells project to the midbrain, where they facilitate
the constriction of the pupils in response to light and coordination of head and eye
movements

 Collaterals also project to the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus

 The suprachiasmatic nucleus establishes patterns of sleep and other activities that occur on
a circadian rhythm in response to intervals of light and darkness

 Axons of thalamic neurons form the optic radiations as they extend from the thalamus to
the primary visual area of the cortex in the occipital lobe on the ipsilateral side
The Neuronal Pathway of Vision
The Neuronal Pathway of Vision
The Neuronal Pathway of Vision
Cortical Areas for Visual Perception
The Neuronal Pathway of Vision
Cortical Areas for Visual Perception
 The Neuronal Pathway of Vision
Lesions

 The neuronal pathways that

convey the images to the
occipital lobe of the cerebral
cortex are well characterized

 Understanding the visual

neuronal pathways help us to
comprehend how lesions at
different points can affect
vision