Chapter 8: Synthesising

INTRODUCTION
 Synthesising is an important and complex
skill required in academic writing.
 Synthesising written information is the
process of taking multiple sources and
bringing them together into one
cohesive idea,while building on a new
idea or theory.
 When writing a synthesis essay,it is
important to examine the source.
 Synthesis does not focus on a single author
(or academic source).
 It is more complex and draws on insights
from a range of literature (or academic
sources) to identify both similar and
contradictory ideas with a view to establish
links and merge various components into a
whole, to support the argument.
 When you synthesise, you draw relationships
between written or non-written sources.
 Your ability to synthesise depends on your
ability to infer relationships among sources
like essays, articles, fictions and also non-
written sources, such as lectures, interviews
and observations.
 An excellent synthesis essay usually
combines segments of different texts to
create a whole new explanation of the
information.
 Unlike summarising and paraphrasing,
which only use one author's ideas at a
time, synthesising combines ideas from
more than one text or source to group and
present common ideas or arguments.
Synthesising allows you to do the following:
 Combine information and ideas from multiple

sources to develop and strengthen your

argument(s).
 Demonstrate that you have read widely on the

topic.
 Use and cite multiple sources.
 PREPARING TO WRITE A SYNTHESIS
 The following steps will help you in
preparation for writing your synthesis:
1. Brainstorm the issues related to your topic.
2. Read widely on your topic by focusing on
the issues relevant to your assignment.
3. Write an outline of what each text says
about a particular issue or theme.
4.Group information together according to
common ideas. This makes it easier to
compare the content of the various texts.
5.Use colours to highlight similarities and list
the similarities.
6.Decide on a logical order for the
information and ideas you want to include in
your writing.
7.Draft your paragraph(s) on the issue using
your notes.
8.Use a topic sentence to introduce the
theme and then use the information you have
gathered to develop your ideas.
9.Make sure you reference your sources.
 A table of common points is useful to group
source materials into specific categories.
These categories can help you to organise
the paper.
To create a table, follow these steps:
1.As you read your articles, take note of words
or ideas that repeat themselves.
2.Make note of conflicts or contradictions in the
information.
3.Based on the repetitions or/and
contradictions you notice, write down
information that you have noted.
4.Create a table using authors' names and
categories as organizing features.
5.Fill in the table with details from source
materials.

For example, a synthesis essay on the topic,

"Online Learning", has the following
information from three articles written by three
different authors.
 
Topic sentence Online learning has a number of benefits for
 
  students. It promotes interaction and engagement with
 
peers and instructors without the need for them to be
 
Synthesis from the
physically present in the lecture rooms (Parker, 2017). In
three sources
  addition, students and faculty can enjoy flexibility and

convenience while learning (Williams, 2016). Besides,

successful online programs can also lead to increased

satisfaction, higher retention and enrolment among

students (Liaw, 2018).

 Support your topic sentence with
paraphrases from your source materials.
 As you incorporate information from your
source materials, make sure to use clear
transitions that relate the sources to each
other and to your topic sentence.
 Attempts to Quit Smoking
The majority of smokers have wanted to stop smoking at one or more times
in their smoking history. The addictive nature of smoking has not deterred
smokers in their attempts to quit (Reid & Jones, 2009), and smokers have
tried a wide range of methods to break their addiction. While some have
relied on willpower (Lee, 2010), others have sought assistance from the
pharmaceutical industry (Tanner & McKay, 2009). Alternative methods to
help them give up smoking are also being explored by smokers. This is
seen in recent studies reporting an increase in the use of herbal and other
complementary medicines to address nicotine dependency (Lee, 2010). The
effectiveness of these methods in assisting smokers in their attempts to give
up smoking is investigated in the following sections of this report.
NOTE-TAKING FOR SYNTHESISING

 There are a variety of note-taking methods.

 Here are tips for synthesising your information

before you start writing your essay:

• Organise the information by topic, creating
sub-topics as needed to connect ideas.
• Think about what points from each topic you
will want to include in your literature review.
• Decide on the areas you will discuss (or
leave out).
• Decide what information you will use to
support your conclusion.

After reading and selecting the suitable

texts, write down the main points.
Remember to cite the references.
Below are notes made from the works of four authors.

Topic: English remains as the global language

T e x t 1 (N ic h o ls o n , 2 0 1 2 )
T ex t 2 (T a n , 2 0 1 3 )
• in te rn a tio n a l la n g u a g e -
c o m m u n ic a tio n • u n iv e rs a l la n g u a g e - in
te c h n o lo g y
• u s e d fo r - in te rn a tio n a l fo ru m s
( e .g . W H O , U N , U N E S C O ) • c o m p u te r s - k e y f a c to r - in

• s e c o n d la n g u a g e - n u m e ro u s w id e n in g th e u s e o f E n g lis h

c o u n trie s • in te rn a tio n a lis a tio n e d u c a tio n

T e x t 3 (S h a n k a r, 2 0 1 2 )
T e x t 4 (L im , 2 0 1 1 )
• in s ig n ific a n t n u m b e r o f s p e a k e rs
- g lo b a lly • m in o rity o f E n g lis h s p e a k e rs in

• re p u ta tio n o f E n g lis h - a s s o c ia te d th e w o rld

w ith U .S . p o w e r , i .e . " p o lit ic a l" • C h in e s e la n g u a g e - d o m in a n t -

in fu tu re
• m o re p e o p le - s p e a k C h in e s e
la n g u a g e - w o rld w id e • U s a g e o f E n g lis h d e c lin e -
fu tu re
 Own voice
 It is important to present your own position
within your work based on the evidence you
have synthesised; this is called "own voice".
 This can be done by using a combination of
caution, hedging, evaluative adjectives,
adverbs and verbs.
 By using either positive or negative
language to present your evaluation,
you demonstrate your own position to
your readers.
 Below are some examples and phrases to
use.
Examples (based on the works (no date) from the
University of Melbourne)

 The investigations to date may indicate a fundamental flaw

in this approach. It certainly shows a need for more
research on this topic.
 Peters (2015) is misguided when she inaccurately claims
that nurses need to be shown how to use online learning
tools to be effective learners. 
 Furthermore, it appears that Lane et al. (2002) may have
overlooked some key data when they raise the possibility
that ethnicity is the key indicator for hypertension amongst
the UK population.
P h r a s e s th a t c o u ld b e u s e d to e v a lu a te e v id e n c e /s h o w y o u r o w n
v o ic e
T o S h o w P o s itiv e C o m m e n ts T o S h o w N e g a tiv e C o m m e n ts
V a lid D is re g a rd
Sound In c o m p le te
In s ig h tfu l In a d e q u a te
H e lp fu l P ro b le m a tic
S ig n ific a n t Q u e s tio n a b le
A s tu te In v a lid
C o n trib u te d to /W id e ly a c c e p te d D is a p p o in tin g
S tro n g ly U n lik e ly
C le a rly /C e rta in ly /In te re s tin g ly / T h e re is n o s o lid re a s o n fo r
Im p o rta n tly F a ils to p ro v id e /c o n s id e r
It is c le a r th a t/It is e v id e n t th a t O v e rt/E x p lic it/C le a r p ro b le m s w ith
It is in te re s tin g /u s e fu l to n o te P o s s ib le e rro rs in /P ro b le m s w ith /
It is im p o rta n t to p o in t o u t/ F la w s in th is th e o ry
e m p h a s is e T h is a rg u m e n t is lim ite d /fla w e d /
H a v in g lo o k e d a t th e d e b a te /d a ta / u n c o n v in c in g /u n s a tis fa c to ry b e c a u s e
re s u lts , it w o u ld s e e m th a t T h is a rg u m e n t is o f little im p o rta n c e
W o u ld te n d to s u g g e s t th a t because
A p p e a rs th a t/P e rh a p s /P o s s ib ly / T h e re is a la c k o f/Ig n o re s /D o e s n o t
A rg u a b ly ta k e in to a c c o u n t
 Guidelines for a General Synthesis Essay
Thesis statement
A thesis statement is a one-sentence summary of
an essay's content. Different writing tasks require
different thesis statements. A thesis statement
includes a subject and a predicate, which consists of
an assertion about the subject.
Reading from sources and selecting
information
This part can be arduous and requires time to do. It

is important to read your articles carefully. Extract

important information relevant to your topic and
make sure your sources are properly cited.
Analysis
Based on the evidence gathered, try to find ways to

connect ideas and themes of the topics under study.

Remain objective and only make claims that are
backed up by evidence.
Ideas behind connections
Depending on the topic, some ideas may be very

bias. Make sure that you verify the facts.

Final findings
In the final paragraph, briefly summarise all

the main points, listing them if you support or

oppose the original thesis statement. Be brief
and do not go into lengthy explanations but
simply state the final conclusion about each
topic and move on to the next. At the end, you
can draw your conclusion or give your
recommendation.
It is important to note that a synthesis is
not a summary. Instead, a synthesis
essay is to create new knowledge out of
existing knowledge and sources.
 WRITING THE SYNTHESIS ESSAY
 A synthesis essay should be organised so
that readers can understand what you have
written from your sources. Readers should be
able to evaluate and understand your
presentation of specific data and themes
from your readings on other authors' works.
 The following format works well:

1. The introduction (usually one paragraph)

 Contains a one-sentence statement that

sums up the focus of your synthesis.

 Also introduces the texts to be synthesised:
 Gives the title of each source (following the
citation guidelines).
 Provides the name of each author.
 Sometimes also provides pertinent
background information about the authors,
about the texts to be summarised or about
the general topic from which the texts are
drawn.
2 The body
This should be organised by theme, point, similarity

or aspect of the topic.

Your organisation will be determined by the

assignment or by the patterns you see in the

material you are synthesising. The organisation is the
most important part of a synthesis, so try out more
than one format.
Be sure that each paragraph:
Begins with a sentence or phrase that informs

readers of the topic of the paragraph.

Includes information from more than one source.
 Clearly indicates which material comes from which
source using lead-in phrases and in-text citations.
(Beware of plagiarism: Accidental plagiarism most
often occurs when students are synthesising
sources and do not indicate where the synthesis
ends and their own comments begin and vice
versa.)
 Shows the similarities or differences between the
different sources in ways that make the paper as
informative as possible.
 Represents the texts fairly, even if that seems to
weaken the paper! Look upon yourself as a
synthesising machine; you are simply repeating
what the source says, in fewer words and in
your own words. But the fact that you are using
your own words does not mean that you are in
anyway changing what the source says.
The conclusion
When you have finished your paper, write a

conclusion reminding readers of the most

significant themes you have found and the ways
they connect to the overall topic.
You may also want to suggest further research

or comment on things that it was not possible

for you to discuss in the paper.
If you are writing a background synthesis, in some

cases it may be appropriate for you to offer an

interpretation of the material or take a position
(thesis). Check this option with your instructor before
you write the final draft of your paper.
 Synthesis essays can assume many different
forms in higher learning institutions.
 The common types are informative and
argumentative synthesis.
 Steps in writing an informative
synthesis essay
1 Choose your source materials carefully.
2 Create a thesis.
3 Prepare an outline.
4 Write your introduction.
5 Write the body paragraphs.
6 Write your conclusion.
7 Edit your essay.
8 Check your documentation.
Writing Argumentative Synthesis Essays

 Argumentative synthesis presents your own opinion

on an issue, but it must be based on the use of
evidence and facts that are relevant to sources and
presented logically. An argumentative essay thesis
is usually subject to debate. It creates propositions
that some people could disagree with. Multiple writers
could write using the same source and could oppose
each other. They are known as the opposite thesis.
Elements of an argument
Arguments may take many forms, but successful
arguments share a specific set of elements. A complete
argument contains the following:
• A claim, or the basic idea of the argument
• A warrant, or an explanation why the claim is true
• Data, or evidence
• An impact, or a reason why the argument is important
These elements should be present in all forms of
argumentation. They are especially important in verbal
argumentation because the audience must be able to
follow the argument. In written argumentation, readers
may absorb and process the argument at their own
pace.
Structure of an argument

Claim The main point of the argument; what the writer

seeks to prove true.
Warrant The logical justification for the claim; why the
claim is true.
Evidence The information or evidence used to support the
warrant.
Impact The reason the argument should matter to the
audience.
 Example of each element of an argument

 Claim Legalising marijuana will increase

government revenues.
 Warrant Governments can place taxes on
legalised marijuana.
 Evidence BusinessWeek, 29 March 2006 —
Legalised marijuana, if sold in
stores at the same prices as sold on
the street, would yield $40 to $100
billion in new tax revenue.
 Impact In a country where both
federal and state governments
run massive deficits, and where
programs from welfare to
education are being cut across
the board, we need to do
whatever we can to increase
revenue streams. 
Source:
https://www2.mcdaniel.edu/rtrader/handout
s/argumentation/TOULMIN.pdf
 Steps in writing argument synthesis
1 Do extensive research on your given topic.
2 Review and annotate the readings.
3 Formulate an explicit thesis statement, or
claim, about your topic.
4 Prepare an outline.
5 Write the introduction.
6 Write the body paragraphs.
7 Write the conclusion.
8 Revise your draft.
9 Check your Quotations and documentations.
Skills for Synthesizing
 The skills needed to synthesize reading
materials are the ability to summarize
information, paraphrase it, and compare and
contrast it.
 Other necessary skills are the ability to
separate fact from opinion, make inferences
based on the facts presented, and evaluate
that information to draw conclusions.
Distinguishing Between
FACT AND OPINION

What are the differences?

FACTS
 Facts are statements that can be checked or
proved
 We can check facts by conducting some sort
of experiment, observation, or by
verifying (checking) the fact with a source
document
 Facts often contain numbers, dates, or ages
 Facts might include specific information
about a person, place or thing
OPINIONS
 An opinion is a statement that cannot
be proved or checked
 It tells what someone thinks, feels, or
believes
 Clue words for opinion statements are:
 think, feel, believe, seem
 always, never, all, none, most, least,
best, greatest, worst
HINTS FOR DECIDING IF A
STATEMENT IS FACT OR OPINION

 To recognize a FACT:
 Read each answer choice and ask yourself:
 “Can this statement be proved?”
Example: Which of these is a fact?
A. We live in the best apartment in the city.
B. I believe that summer is the best season.
C. I think that spaghetti is a delicious meal.
D. The Poughkeepsie Journal is a newspaper.
HINTS FOR DECIDING IF A
STATEMENT IS A FACT OR OPINION

 To recognize an OPINION:
 Read each answer choice and ask
yourself “Does this statement tell what
someone thinks, feels, or believes?”
 Look in the answer choice for clue
words that signal an opinion
Practice –fact, opinion or a
mix of both?
1. There are fewer panda bears in the
world than grizzly bears.
2. Charles Lindbergh was brave to
attempt to fly solo across the Atlantic
Ocean..
3. Justin Bieber deserved to win the
Grammy for best new artist.
Practice
5. Chicken that has not been properly prepared
and cooked may cause salmonella.
6. In 2010, Joao Silva, one of the most talented
and respected photojournalists working in the
world today, lost both of his legs when he
stepped on a plastic land mine in Afghanistan.
7. Tiger Woods was the first African American
to win the Masters Golf Tournament.
Practice
8. All Rap lyrics are offensive.
9. In 2010, Joao Silva, one of the most
talented and respected photojournalists
working in the world today, lost both of his
legs when he stepped on a plastic land
mine in Afghanistan.
10. 16 is the legal driving age in
Mississippi.
Answer
1. Opinion 6. Mix
2. Fact 7. Fact
3. Opinion 8. Opinion
4. Opinion 9. Mix
5. Fact 10. Fact
 When you’re synthesizing….

 Remember:
 Facts are often used to
support opinions
 Good opinions are based
on facts, but they are
still opinions
Inference
Inference -What are the
processes?
Inference ~ questioning

51
Inference ~ connecting

Readers are able to think

inferentially when they connect
their background of information,
ideas, and experiences with the text.

52
Inference ~background
knowledge
It is important for the reader to have
background knowledge about a text they
are reading if they are expected to read
inferentially.

53
Inference ~ making
prediction

54
 Inference ~ imagination/
visualization

“When you read, you use all your

senses. You see things in your
‘mind’s eye’ and hear the sounds you
connect to that about which you are
reading.”
~ Guided Reading the Four Blocks Way
55
 Inference ~ analyzing text
(interpretation/judgement)

“Inferring is the process of taking

that which is stated in text and
extrapolating it to one’s life to create
a wholly original interpretation that,
in turn, becomes part of one’s beliefs
or knowledge.”
56
Inference ~ drawing
conclusion

57
Conclusion
 By activating prior knowledge of a topic,
comparing and contrasting information,
and separating fact from opinion, you
will be able to synthesize information
from a variety of sources, form
educated opinions, and draw logical
conclusions.
Sources
 Ahmad Mazli, M. , Krishnakumari, K. &
Micheal, A. S. (2020). Academic Writing
Matters! A Comprehensive Guidebook for
Academic Writing. Kuala Lumpur: McGraw-
Hill Education (Malaysia).
 Bumgarner, Shannon. Ohio Resource
Center for Mathematics, Science, and
Reading. http://ohiorc.org/adlit/strategy
 Reading Strategies: Scaffolding Students’
Interactions with Texts. Key Concept
Synthesis Strategy.
http://www.greece.k12.ny.us/instruction
 Harvey, Stephanie and Anne Goudvis.
Strategies That Work. Chapter 10, p. 144.
http://www.readinglady.com