F U N D A M E N TA L S

OF SURVEYING
CE010

E.G. Escondo
COURSE TOPICS (PRELIM)
I. Introduction to the Course
II. Types of Surveying
III.Measurement of Distance, Errors in measurement
IV. Pacing
V. Measurement of Directions and Angles
VI.Bearing and Azimuth
VII.Magnetic Declination
Measurement of Distance,
Errors in Measurement
 M O D E R N - D AY S U R V E Y I N G
INSTRUMENTS
1. Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) Instruments
Direct measurement of distances and
their directions can be obtained by
using electronic instruments that rely
on propagation, reflection and
reception of either light waves or radio
waves.

They may be broadly classified into

three types:
a. Infrared wave instruments
b. Light wave instruments
c. Microwave instruments
DISTOMAT DI 1000 Geodimeter
Image Source:
https://theconstructor.org/surveying/modern-surveying-instruments-us
es/16/
 M O D E R N - D AY S U R V E Y I N G
INSTRUMENTS
2. Automatic Level

An automatic level is a special leveling

instrument used in surveying which
contains an optical compensator which
maintains line of sight or line of
collimation even though instrument is
slightly tilted.
Wild NAK2 Automatic Level
Image Source:
https://theconstructor.org/surveying/modern-surveying-instruments-us
es/16/
 M O D E R N - D AY S U R V E Y I N G
INSTRUMENTS
3. Total Station
Total Station is a lightweight, compact
and fully integrated electronic
instrument combining the capability of
an EDM and an angular measuring
instrument such as wild theodolite.
Total Station can perform the following
functions:

•Distance measurement
•Angular measurement
•Data processing
•Digital display of point details
•Storing data is an electronic field book Image Source:
https://theconstructor.org/surveying/modern-surveying-instruments-us
es/16/
 T O TA L S TAT I O N
The important features of total station are,

1.Keyboard-control – all the functions are controlled by operating key board.

2.Digital panel – the panel displays the values of distance, angle, height and the coordinates of the observed
point, where the reflector (target) is kept.
3.Remote height object – the heights of some inaccessible objects such as towers can be read directly.  The
microprocessor provided in the instrument applies the correction for earth’s curvature and mean refraction,
automatically.
4.Traversing program – the coordinates of the reflector and the angle or bearing on the reflector can be
stored and can be recalled for next set up of instrument.
5.Setting out for distance direction and height -whenever a particular direction and horizontal distance is
to be entered for the purpose of locating the point on the ground using a target, then the instrument displays
the angle through which the theodolite has to be turned and the distance by which the reflector should move.
 M O D E R N - D AY S U R V E Y I N G
INSTRUMENTS
4. Global Positioning System (GPS)
Global Positioning System (GPS) is
developed by U.S. Defense department
and is called Navigational System with
Time and Ranging Global Positioning
System (NAVSTAR GPS) or simply
GPS.

For this purpose U.S. Air Force has

stationed 24 satellites at an altitude of
20200 km above the earth’s surface. 
The satellites have been positioned in
such a way, at least four satellites will Image Source: https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/gps/en/
be visible from any point on earth.
MEASUREMENTS
A measurement is the process of determining the extent, size or dimensions of a
particular quantity in comparison to a given standard. In surveying, measurements may
be made directly or indirectly:

1. Direct Measurements. A direct measurement is a comparison of the measured

quantity with a standard measuring unit or units employed for measuring a quantity
of that kind. Some common examples are applying a wire or tape to a line or
determining a horizontal or vertical angle with a transit.

2. Indirect Measurements. When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument

directly to a quantity to be measured an indirect measurement is made. The
observed value is determined by its relationship to some other known values.
MEASUREMENTS
In this course, we will mainly use the meter or international unit of linear
measure (SI Unit).

1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 meters

1 meter (m) = 1,000 millimeters
1 millimeter (mm) = 1,000 micrometers
1 micrometer (um) = 1,000 millimicrometers
1 millimicrometers (mu) = 1,000 million micrometers
1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters
1 decimeter (dm) = 10 centimeters
1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters
M I S TA K E S
Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect
of a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgement, and improper execution.

Mistakes are also caused by a misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience,

or indifference of the surveyor.

Mistakes are not classified as errors because they usually are so large in
magnitude when compared to errors.
ERRORS
In surveying, errors in measurements are either systematic or accidental.

1.Systematic Errors. This type of error is one which will always have the same
sign and magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant and unchanged.
For instance, in making a measurement with a 30-m tape which is 5cm too short,
the same error is made each time the tape is used.

2. Accidental Errors. These errors are purely accidental in character. Example is

in the reading of an angle with a transit. Since the instrumentman cannot read it
perfectly, there would be times when he would read a value which is too large and
in another too small.
SOURCES OF ERRORS
1. Instrumental Errors

2. Natural Errors

3. Personal Errors
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Accuracy and precision are two terms which are constantly used in surveying.
M O S T P R O B A B L E VA L U E

Most probable value refers to a quantity which, based on available data, has more chances of being
correct than has any other.

mpv or x̅= (x1 + x2 +x3 + x4 + ….)/n

D E V I AT I O N

Is defined as the difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most probable value:

v = x - mpv
PROBABLE ERROR
Is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the mpv, defines a range within which
there is a 50 percent chance that the true value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the
limit thus set.
I N T E R R E L AT I O N S H I P O F E R R O R S
1. Summation of Errors

  2 2 2 2
𝑃𝐸 𝑠=± √ 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 +… 𝑃𝐸
1 2 3 𝑛

 Where: = probable error of the sum

I N T E R R E L AT I O N S H I P O F E R R O R S
2. Product of Errors

 
𝑃𝐸 𝑝=± √ ( 𝑄 1 𝑥 𝑃𝐸 2 ) ²+ ( 𝑄 2 𝑥 𝑃𝐸 1 ) ²

 Where: = probable error of the product

& = probable error corresponding to each quantity measured

I L L U S T R AT I V E P R O B L E M S
1. Probable Error. The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements of a line:
1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46 meters. Determine the following:

a. Most probable value of the measured length

b. Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean
c. Final expression for the most probable length
d. Relative precision of the measurement
I L L U S T R AT I V E P R O B L E M S
2. Weighted Measurements. Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18, 284.19,
284.22, and 284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4, respectively. Determine the weighted
mean.
I L L U S T R AT I V E P R O B L E M S
3. Weighted Measurements. It is desired to determine the most probable value of an angle which has
been measured at different times by different observers with equal care. The values observed were as
follows: 74°39’45’’ (in two measurements), 74°39’27’’ (in four measurements), and
74°39’35’’ (in six measurements).
 I L L U S T R AT I V E P R O B L E M S
4. Weighted Measurements. Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are rim over four
different routes. The observed elevations of the point with probable errors are given below. Determine
the most probable value of the elevation of the point.

LINE OBSERVED PROBABLE (E)2 W = 1/(E)2 RELATIVE P = ELEV

ELEVATION ERROR WEIGHT (RW)
1 219.832m ±0.006m 0.000036 27778 16.00 3517.312
2 219.930 ±0.012 0.000144 6944 4.00 879.720
3 219.701 ±0.018 0.000324 3086 1.78 391.068
4 220.021 ±0.024 0.000576 1736 1.00 220.021
 I L L U S T R AT I V E P R O B L E M S
5. Weighted Measurements. The length of a line was measured repeatedly on three different occasions
and the probable error of each mean value was computed with the following results:

1st Set of Measurements = 1201.50±0.02m

2nd Set of Measurements = 1201.45±0.04m
3rd Set of Measurements = 1201.62±0.05m

MEASURE- MEASURED PROBABLE (E)2 W = 1/(E)2 RELATIVE P=X(RW)

MENT VALUE (X) ERROR (E) WEIGHT
a 1201.50m ±0.02 0.0004 2500 6.25 7509.38
b 1201.45 ±0.04 0.0018 625 1.56 1874.28
c 1201.62 ±0.05 0.0025 400 1.00 1201.62
I L L U S T R AT I V E P R O B L E M S
6. Summation of Errors. The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land is given by the following
measurements and corresponding probable errors: a = 162.54±0.03m, b = 234.26±0.05m, and c =
195.70±0.04m. Determine the probable error of the sum and the most probable value of the perimeter.
I L L U S T R AT I V E P R O B L E M S
7. Product of Errors. The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated
probable errors as follows: W=253.36±0.06m and L=624.15±0.08m. Determine the area of the lot and
the probable error in the resulting calculation.