Bergeys Manual

David Hendricks Bergey

Bergeys manual is the main resource for determining the identity
of prokaryotic organisms, emphasizing bacterial species using
ever characterizing aspects.
The History and Evolution of Bergey’s Manual
1. Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology (1923-
1994)
9 Editions (1 volume each) These are mainly phenetic
First edition-1923 (one volume)
Seventh edition-1957 (one volume)
8th edition-1975 (one volume)
2. Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology (1984- 2012)
1st edition (4 volumes);1984-1989; Mix Phylogenetic / Phenetic
-5 Kingdoms
2nd Edition (5 volumes) (2001-2012);Phylogenetic-3 Domains
David Henricks Bergey (1860-1937)
Bergeys Manual: Classifying and Identifying Prokaryotes
 Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology

First edition -Published in 4 volumes:

Volume 1 (1984) – Gram - negative Bacteria of general,

medical, or industrial importance (Section 1-11)

Spirochaetes, spiral and curved bacteria, gram negative and

facultative aerobic rods, gram negative aerobic and anaerobic

cocci, sulphur reducing bacteria, Rickettsias and Chlamydias.

Volume 2 (1986) – Gram - positive Bacteria of commercial or
medical importance other than Actinomycetes (Section 12-17)
Gram positive cocci, gram positive endospore forming, sporing
rods, mycobacteria
Volume 3 (1989) – Archaeobacteria, Cyanobacteria, and
remaining Gram-negative Bacteria (Section 18-25)
Photorophic, gliding, buddding and appendaged bacteria,
cyanobacteria, lithotrophic bacteria and archeobacteria
Volume 4 (1989) – Filamentous actinomycetes and related
bacteria (Section 26-33)
 Major Taxonomic Group of Bacteria as per Bergey’s Manual
Division 1 Gracilicutes (Thin skin): Gram negative Bacteria
Class I. Scotobacteria: gram negative non photosynthetic bacteria
(volume 1and 3)
Class II. Anoxyphotobacteria: gram negative photosynthetic bacteria that
do not produce oxygen-purple and green bacteria (volume 3)
Class III. Oxyphotobacteria: gram negative photosynthetic bacteria that
produce oxygen-cyanobacteria (volume 3)
Division 2 Firmicutes (Thick and strong skin): gram positive
bacteria
Class I. Firmibacteria: gram positive rods or cocci (volume 2)
Class II.Thallobacteria: gram positive branching cells Actinomycetes
(volume 4)
 Characteristics
Cell Wall: Gracillicutes- Gram –ve cell wall (2-10 nm)
peptidoglycan and outer layer thick. In some microbes thin protein
layer outside peptidoglycan layer.
Firmicutes : Gram +ve cell wall homogenous thick wall about (20-
80 nm) thick composed mainly of peptidoglycan layer. In some,
polysccharides and teichoic acid may be present.
Tenericutes: Lacks cell wall and peptidoglycan precursors enclosed
by a plasma membrane. Cell wall is not formed if precursors is
removed and even if the organism have a mechanism to synthesize
cell wall. It can not as it has to cross link with existing cell wall.
Mendosicutes: Unusual cell wall Pseudomurien, ether linkage,
absence of unusual amino acids.

Shape
Gracilicutes: spherical, oval, rod shape, helical, filamentous,
staight, curved some have sheath or capsule.
Firmicutes : spherical, rods, filments and some do show tree
branches.
Tenericutes: pleomorphic, my be filamentous, can form branches
but rarely.
Reproduction: mainly binary fission in all these. In tenericutes
sometimes budding is possible.
Motility:
Gracilicutes: Motile or non motile. Motility primarily with the
help of flagella which have different arrangement. Spirochates-
axial motility, gram negative-gliding motility.
Firmicutes : generally non motile. If motile then by peritrichous
flagella.
Tenericutes: non motile.
Appendages: usually have pilli or fimbriae.
Gracilicutes: Pilli
Firmicutes : Lack appendages.
Tenericutes: Lack appendages.
Endospore: Gracilicutes: can not form.
Firmicutes: some can form.
Tenericutes: can not form.
Nutrition Gracilicutes: Photoautotroph, photolithotroph
chemolithotroph, chemoorganotrophic.
Firmicutes : chemoorganotrophs
Tenericutes: chemoorganotrophs. Most contain cholestrol, long chain
fatty acid.
Second edition published in 5 volumes:
Volume 1(2001) The Archaea and the deeply branching and
phototrophic bacteria.
Volume 2 (2005) The Proteobacteria.
Volume 3 (2009) The firmicutes.
Volume 4 (2011) The Bacteroidetes, Spirochaetes, Tenericutes
(Mollicutes), Acidobacteria, Lentisphaerae, Chlamydiae and
Planctomycetes.
 Classification and study of major groups of Bacteria
Archaea: They range in diameter from 0.1 to over 15 µm, and
some filaments can grow up to 200 µm in length.
Multiplication may be by binary fission, budding, fragmentation
or other mechanisms.
Cell wall: Archaeal cell wall is made of glycoprotein or protein
instead of peptidoglycan.
Methanobacterium and some other methanogens have walls
containing pseudomurein, a peptidoglycan like polymer that has
L-amino acids in its cross links, N-acetylthalosaminuronic acid,
and β (1-3) glyosidic bonds.
Methanosarcina and Halococcus lack pseudomurein and contain
complex polysaccharides similar to the chondroitin sulfate of
animal connective tissue.
Other heteropolysaccharides are also found in gram positive
walls.
Lipids and membranes:
Archaeal membrane lipids are distinct as compared to the
membrane lipids of bacteria and eukaryota.
Archaeal lipids are derivatives of isoprenyl glycerol ethers rather
than the usual glycerol fatty acid ethers.
They also contain phospholipids, sulfolipids and glycolipids.
Archaeal nonpolar membranes are the derivative of squalence 30
carbon compound, presence of diethers, tetraethers are needed for
their stability to thrive in extreme environments.

Metabolism: Archaeal metabolism varies greatly between the

members of different groups.
They are just as diverse physiologically.
They can be aerobic, facultative anaerobic or strictly anaerobic.
Nutrionally they range from chemolithoautotrophs to organotrophs.
The enzyme 6-phosphofructokinase has not been found in archea,
and they do not appear to degrade glucose by way of the embden –
mayerhoff pathway.
Extreme halophiles and thermophiles catabolize glucose using a
modified form of the Entner-Doudroff pathway in which the initial
intermediates are not phosphorylated.
In contrast the glucose degradation, gluconeogenesis proceeds by a
reversed of the embden-mayerhoff pathway in halophiles and
methanogens.
All archaea that have been studied can oxidize pyruvate to acetyl-
CoA they lack the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex present in
eukaryotes and respiratory bacteria and use the enzyme pyruvate
oxidoreductase for this purpose.
Halophiles and the extreme thermophile thermoplasma do seem to
have a functional tricarboxylic acid cycle.
 Archaeal Taxonomy
According to rRNA data they are divided into two groups.
Euryarchaeota and Crenarhaeota
On the basis of morphology and physiology they are divided into
five.
Methanogenic archaea
Archaea sulfate reducer
Extremely halophilic archaea
Cell wall less archaea
Extremely thermophilic sulphur-metabolizers
 Phylum- (Eures:Wide)
Given this name because they occupy many diverse ecological
niches and have a variety of metabolic patterns.
It consists of 7 classes- Methanobacteria; Methanococci;
Halobacteria; Thermoplasma; Thermococci; Archaeglobi and
Methanopyri
9 orders and 15 families.

Methanogens
This is the largest group of archaea.
They are strict anaerobes that obtain energy through the
conversion of CO2 & 2H2 into methane.
There are 5 orders (Methanobacteriales; Methanococcales;
Methanomicrobiales; Methanosarcinales and Methanopyrales) and 26
generas.
Methanogens thrive in anaerobic environments rich in organic
matter:- The rumen and intestinal system of animals.
-Freshwater and marine sediments.
-Swamps and marshes.
-Hot springs.
Anaerobic sludge digesters and even within anaerobic protozoa.
 Rumen methanogens are so active that a cow can belch 200-400
litres of methane a day.
 Halobacteria
They are aerobic heterotrophs with respiratory metabolism and require
complex nutrients usually proteins and amino acids for growth.
Species are either non motile or motile by lophotrichous flagella.
The extreme halophiles, class Halobacteria are another major group of
archaea, currently with 15 genera in one family, the Halobacteriaceae.
 The most obvious distinguishing trait of this family is its absolute
dependence on a high concentration of NaCl.
These prokaryotes require at least 3-4 M NaCl (17-23%) for their
growth optimum.
Halobacterium produces energy by trapping light and synthesize ATP
with the help of rhodopsin.
 Thermoplasma
Thermoacidophiles are the characteristics of lacking cell wall.
At present, only two genera, Thermoplasma and Picrophilus, are
known.
Thermoplasma grows in refuse piles of coal mines.
These piles contain large amounts of iron pyrite (Fes), which is
oxidized to sulphuric acid by chemolithotrophic bacteria.
As a result the piles become very hot and acidic.
 Extremely Thermophilic Sulphur Metabolizers
This physiological group contains the class thermococci, with
one order, thermococcales.
The thermococcales are strictly anaerobic and can reduce
sulphur to sulphide.
They are motile by flagella and have optimum growth
temprature around 88-100°C.
The order contains one family and two genera, Thermococcus
and pyrococcus.
 Sulfate Reducing Archaea

Archaeal sulfate reducers are foumd in the class

Archaeoglobi and the order Archaeoglobales.

This order has only one family and one genus.

Archaeoglobus contains gram negative, irregular coccoid

cells with walls consisting of gycoprotein subunits.

Archaeoglobus is extremely thermophilic.

 Phylum-Crenarcheota
They are the extreme hyperthermophiles which needs optimum
temperature of 105°C.
Apresent, the phylum contains 69 genera: two of the
betterstudied genera are Thermoproteus and Sulfolobus.
Thermoproteus is a strict anaerobe and grows at temperatures
from 70-97°C and pH values between 2.5 and 6.5.
It is found in hot springs and other hot aquatic habitats rich in
sulfur.
Sulfolobus are aerobic, with a temperature optimum around 70-
80°C and a pH optimum of 2-3.
 Deeply Branching and Phototrophic bacteria
B (I) Aquificae
 Represent the deepest or oldest branch of bacteria, contains one
class, one order and five genera.
 Two of the best studied genera are Aquifex and Hydrogenobacter.
 Hyperthermophile with a temperature optimum of 85°C and
maximum of 95°C.
 Aquifex is an autotroph and generates energy by oxidizing donors
such as hydrogen thiosulfate and sulphur with oxygen as the
acceptor.
 Because Aquifex and Hydrogenobacter are both thermophilic,
chemolithoautotrophs, it has been suggested that the bacterial
ancestors was probably thermophilic and chemolithoautotrophic.
 B (II) Thermotogae
The second oldest or deepest branch is the phylum thermotogae,
which also has one class, one order and five genera.
The members of the genus thermotogae (greek therme, heat; latin
toga, outer garment), like Aquifex are hyperthermophiles with a
growth optimum of 80°C and maximum 90°C.
They are gram negative rods with an outer sheath like envelop (like
a toga) that can extend or balloon out from the ends of the cell.
They grow in active geothermal areas, both marine hydrothermal
systems and terrestrial solfataric springs.
In contrast to Aquifex, thermotoga is a chemoheterotroph with a
functional glycolytic pathway and can grow anaerobically on
carbohydrates and protein digests.
 B (III) Deinococcus-Thermus
The phylum Deinococcus-Thermus contains the class Deinococcus
and the order Deinococcales and Thermales.
Deinococci are spherical or rod shaped with distinctively different
16 SrRNA.
They often are associated with pairs or tetrads.
Although they stain gram positive, their cell wall is layered and has
outer membrane like the gram negative bacteria.
Almost all strains are extraordinarily resistant to both dessication
and radiation; they can survive as much as 3.5 million rad of radiation
(an exposure of 100 rad can be lethal to humans)
If the bacteria are exposed to enough radiation, their
chromosomes are shattered into many fragments.
Within 12-24 hrs, they splice the fragments back together.
A major reason for their ability to repair DNA is an usually
efficient Rec A protein.
 Photosynthetic Bacteria
There are 3 groups of photosynthetic bacteria: the purple bacteria, the
green bacteria and the cyanobacteria.
The cyanobacteria differ most fundamentally from the green and
purple photosynthetic bacteria in being able to carry out oxygenic
photosynthesis.
They use water as an electron donor and generate oxygen during
photosynthesis.
In contrast, purple and green bacteria use anoxygenic photosynthesis.
Because they are unable to use water as an electron source, they
employ reduced molecules such as hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, hydrogen
and organic matter as their electron source.
Consequently, purple and green bacteria do not produce oxygen
but many form sulfur granules.
Purple sulfur bacteria accumulate granules within their cells,
whereas green sulfur bacteria deposit the sulfur granules outside their
cells.
Purple and green bacteria differ from the cyanobacteria in having
bacteriochlorophylls rather than chlorophyll a.
Because these bacteria grow best in deeper anaerobic zones of
aquatic habitats, they can not effectively use parts of the visible
spectrum normally employed by photosynthetic organisms.
The bacteriochorophhyll pigments of purple and green bacteria
absorb longer wavelength, far-red light not used by other
photosynthesizers.
The second edition of Bergey’s Manual places photosynthetic
bacteria into five major groups.
The phylum chloroflexi, the green non-sulfur bacteria and the
phylum chlorobi, the green sulfur bacteria.
The cyanobacteria are placed in their own phylum,
cyanobacteria.
Purple sulfur bacteria and purple non-sulfur bacteria are placed
in the different families of proteobacteria.
 Photosynthetic/Phototrophic Bacteria
phototrophs that contain photosynthetic lamellae.
Autotrophic.
Devided into five groups based on pigments and sources of
electrons for photosynthesis.
Blue green algae (cyanobacteria)
green sulfur bacteria
green non-sulfur bacteria
purple sulfur bacteria
purple non-sulfur bacteria
 B (IV) Thermodesulphobacteria
This phylum contains one class (Thermodesulphobacteria) and
only two genera, Thermodesulfobacterium and
Thermodesulfalater. the bacteria are anaerobic, thermophilic
and sulfate reducing.
B (V) Chrysiogenetes
The phylum Chrysiogenetes is currently represented by a single
species, which was reportedly distinct from members of
theother phyla Gram-negative, motile, curved, rod shaped cells.
Mesophilic exhibiting anaerobic respiration in which arsenate
serves as the electron acceptor.
 B (VI) Chloroflexi
The phylum chloroflexi has both photosynthetic and non-
photosynthetic members.
Photosynthetic green non-sulfur bacteria.
It is filamentous, gliding, thermophilic bacterium that often
is islolated from neutral to alkaline hot springs when it grows
in the form of orange-reddish mats, usually in association with
cyanobacteria.
Fix carbon as a result of a special 3-hydroxypropionate.
 B (VII) Thermomicrobia
The phylum contains one class (thermomicrobia) and is
represented by a single genus, thermomicrobium.
Thermimicrobium is an aerobic thermophilic
chemoheterotrophs possessing unusual lipids that contain 1,2-
dialcohols instead of glycerol, and have neither ester nor ether
linkages.
B (VIII) Nitrospirae
Gram-negative, curved,vibrioid or spiral shaped cells.
Metabolically diverse, most genera are aerobic
chemolithotrophs including nitrifiers, dissmilatory sulfate
reducers, and magnetotatic forms.
 B (IX) deferribacters
Gram-negative rods or vibrio-shaped cells that do not form endospores,
preferentially anaerobes (rarely microaerophilic), neutrophilic,
mesophilic to thermophilic. they are alsofound in oil reservoirs and
polluted soil.
B (X)Chlorobi
The phylum chlorobi has only one class (chlorobia), order
(chlorobiales) and family (chlorobiaceae)
The green sulfur bacteria are a small group of obligatory anaerobic
photolithoautotrophs that use hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur and
hydrogen as electron sources.
The elemental sulfur produced by sulfide oxidation is deposited
outside the cell.
Their photosynthetic pigments are located in ellipsoidal vesicles
called chlorosomes or chlorobium vesicles which are attached to the
plasma membrane but are not continous with it.
These bacteria flourish in the anaerobic, sulfide-rich zones of lakes.
Although they lack flagella and are non motile, some species have
gas vesicles to adjust their depth for optimal light and hydrogen
sulfide.
The green sulfur bacteria are very diverse morphologically.
 The may be rods, cocci or vibrio; some grow singly and others
form chains and clusters.
Representative genera are Chlorobium, Pelodictyon and
Prosthecochloris.
 B (XI) Cyanobacteria
The cyanobacteria are the largest and most diverse group of
photosynthetic bacteria.
The G+C content of the group ranges from 35-71%.
Although cyanobacteria are tree prokaryotes, their photosynthetic
system closely resembles that of the eukaryotes because they have
chlorophyll a and photosystem II, and carry out oxygenic
photosynthesis.
Photosynthetic pigments and electron transport chain components
are located in thylakoid membranes lined with particles called
phycobilisomes.
Phycobilisome
These contain phycobilin pigments particularly phycocyanin and
transfer energy to photosystem II.
Carbon dioxide is assimilated through the calvin cycle and the
reserve carbohydrate is glycogen.
Sometimes they will store extra nitrogen as polymers of arginine or
aspartic acid in cyanophycin granules.
Since cyanobacteria lack the enzyme α-ketogluterate
dehydrogenase, they do not have a fully functional citric acid cycle.
The pentose phosphate pathway plays a central role in their
carbohydrate metabolism.
Some can grow slowly in the dark as chemoheterotrophs by
oxidizing glucose and few other sugars.
Structure of Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria also vary greatly in shape and appearance.
They range in diameter from about 1-10µm and may be
unicellular, exist as colonies of many shapes, or form filaments
called trichomes.
A trichome is arow of bacterial cells that are in close contact with
one another over a large area.
Altough most appear blue-green because of phycocyanin a few
are red or brown in colour because of the red pigment
phycoerythrin.
They often use gas vesicles to move vertically in the water, and
many filamentous species have gliding motility.
Cyanobacteria show great diversity with respect to reproduction
and employ a variety of mechanisms: binary fission, budding,
fragmentation and multiple fission.
Fragmentaton of filamentous cyanobacteria can generate small,
motile filaments called harmogonia.
Some species develop akinetes, specialized, dormant thick
walled resting cells that are resistant to dessication often these
germinate to form new filaments.
Many filamentous cyanobacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen by
means of special cells called heterocysts.
When transforming themselves into heterocysts:-
Cyanobacterial cells synthesize a very thick new wall,
Reorganize their photosynthetic membranes,
Discard their phycobiliproteins and photosystem II, and
Synthesize the nitrogen-fixing enzyme nitrogenase.
Photosystem I is still functional and produce ATP, but no
oxygen arises from noncyclic photophosphorylatoin.
The heterocyst wall slows or prevent O2 diffusion into the cell,
and any O2 present is consumed during respiration.
It obtains nutrients from adjcent vegetative cells and contributes
fixed nitrogen in the form of the amino acid glutamine.
The second edition of Bergey’s manual divides the cyanobacteria
into five subdivisions with 56 genera.
These are distinguished using colony or trichome morphology and
reproductive patterns.
Cyanobacteria are very tolerant of environmental extremes and are
present in almost all types of water and soil.
Cyanobacteria are particularly successful in establishing symbiotic
relationships with other organisms.
They are the photosynthetic partner in most lichen association.
Cyanobacteria are symbionts with protozoa and fungi and nitrogen
fixing species form association with variety of plants. (liverworts,
mosses, gymnosperms and angiosperms)
 Classification and study of major group of Bacteria
Volume 3 The low G+C Gram Positive
Inroduction
Volume of the first edition of Bergey’s manual contains
6 sections covering all gram positive bacteria except the
actinomyetes.
Bacteria are distribute among thee sections on the basis
of their shape, the ability to form endospores, acid
fastness, oxygen relationships the ability to temporarily
form mycelia and other properties.
The second edition of Bergey’s manual groups the gram
positive bacteria phylogenetically into two major groups:
the low G+C gram positive bacteria and high G+C gram positive
bacteria.
These are placed in the phylum Firmicutes and divided into
three classes: Mollicutes, Clostridia and Bacilli.
The phylum Firmicutes is large and complex; it has 10 orders
and 33 families.
It differs most obviously from the classification system of the
first edition in containing the class Mollicutes.
The mycoplasmas class Mollicutes are now placed with the low
G+C gram positive rather than gram negative bacteria.
Ribosomal RNA data indicate that the mycoplasmas are closely
related to the Clostridia, despite their lack of cell walls.

Class Mollicutes (The Mycoplasmas)

The class Mollicutes has five orders and six families.
The best studied genera are found in the orders.
Mycoplasmatales (Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma)
Entomoplasmatales (Entomoplasma, Mesoplasma, Spiroplasma)
Acholeplasmatales (Acholeplasma)
Anaeroplasmatales (Anaeroplasma, Asteroplasma)
 Morphology
Members of the class Mollicutes are commonly called
mycoplasmas.
These bacteria lack cell walls and can not synthesize
peptidoglycan precursors. Thus they are penicillin resistant but
susceptible to lysis by osmotic shock and detergent treatment.
Because they are bounded only by a plasma membrane, these
prokaryotes are pleomorphic and vary in shape from spherical or
pear shaped organisms, about 0.3 to 0.8 µm in diameter, to branched
or helical filaments.
Although most are non motile, some can glide along liquid-
covered surfaces.
Most species differ from the vast majority of bacteria in requiring
sterols for growth.
They usually are facultative anaerobes, but a few are obligate
anaerobes.
They grow on enrichment media with 20% human or horse serum.
Human or horse serum provides cholesterol and fatty acids which is
required for synthesis of cell membrane since these bacteria are
unable to synthesize the component of cell membrane by themselves.
They gives small size fried egg colon on semi solid enriched media
containing 20 % horse serum, yeast extract after 7-12 days of
inoculation in CO2 incubator.
When growing on agar, most species will form colonies with a
fried egg appearance because they grow into the agar surface at the
centre while spreading outward on the surface at the colony edges.
Certain mycoplasms contain compounds called lipoglycans.
 lipoglycans are long chain heteropolysaccharides covalently
linked to membrane lipids and embedded in the cytoplasmic
membrane of many mycoplasmas.
Lipoglycans resembles LPS in the outer membrane of gram –ve
bacteria, except that they lack the lipid and backbone.
They stabilize the cytoplasmic mambrane and have also been
identified as facilitating attachment of mycoplasma to cell surfae
receptors of animal cells.
 Genotype
They are the smallest bacteria capable of self reproduction.
Their genomes is one of the smallest found in prokaryotes, about
5 to 10x108 daltons; the G+C content ranges from 23 to 41%

Metabolism
Mycoplasma can be saprophytes commansals or parasites and
many are pathogen of plants, animals or insects.
They are deficient in several biosynthetic sequences and often
require sterols, fatty acids, vitamins, amino acids, purines and
pyrimidines.
Those mycoplasmas need sterols incorporate them into the plasma
membrane.
Mycoplasmas are usually more osmotically stable than bacterial
protoplast and their membrane sterol may be stabilizing factor.
Some produce ATP by the Embden meyerhoff pathway and lactic
acid fermentation.
Others catabolize arginine or urea to generate ATP.
The pentose phosphate pathway seems functional in at least some
mycoplasmas; none appear to have the complete tricarboxylic acid
cycle.
 Habitat
Mycoplasmas are remarkbly widespread and can be isolated from
animals, plants the soil and even compost piles.
Indeed about 10% of the mammalian cell cultures in use are
probably contaminated with mycoplasmas, which seriously interfere
with tissue culture experiments and are difficult to detect and
eliminate.
In animals, mycoplasmas colonies mucous membranes and joints
and often are associated with diseases of respiratory and urogenital
tracts.
 Disease agents
Mycoplasmas cause several major diseases in livestock for eg.
Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in cattle (M. mycoides).
Chronic respiratory disease in chickens (M. gallisepticum) and
pneumonia in swine (M. hyopneumoniae)
M. Pneumoniae causes primary atypical pneumonia in humans and
along with M. hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum also are human
pathogens.
Spiroplasmas have been isolated from insects, ticks and a variety
of plants. They cause disease in citrus plants, cabbage, corn,
honeybees and other hosts.
Artropods probably often act as vectors and carry the spiroplasmas
between plants.
Some species of spiroplasma causes honey bee spiroplasmosis and
lethargy disease of the bettle melontha.
Gram positive bacteria Clostridia often can ferment amino acids to
produce ATP by oxidizing 1-amino acid and using another as e-
acceptor in the process called stickland reaction.
This reaction generates ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, fatty acids and
amines during anaerobic decomposition of proteins.
These products are responsible for many unpleasant odors arising
during putrefaction.
Several clostridia produces toxins and are major disease agents.
C. tetani-Tetanus
C. perfringens- Gas gangrene and food poisoning
C. butalinum- Botulism
These are industrially valuable for eg. C. acetobutylicum is used
to produce butanol in some countries.
Desulfotomoculum is an anaerobic, endospore forming that
produces sulfate and sulfite to hydrogen sulfide during anaerobic
respiration
 Volume 4 The High G+C gram Positive Bacteria
Actinomycetes
Gram positive bacteria
Distinctive (cellular hyphae, do not undergo reproduction, form
endospores)
They closely resemble fungi because they are adapted to same
habitat.
General properties: When growing on a solid substratum such as
agar, the branching networks of hyphae developed by
actinomycetes grows both on the surface of substratum and into it
to form a substrate mycelium.
The septa usually divides the hyphae into long cells containing
several nucleoid. Sometimes a tissue like mass results and is known
as thallus.
Many actinomycetes also have an aerial mycelia that extends upto
septum and forms sexual thin walled spores called conidia
(conidiospores) on the filaments. If the spores are in a sporangium
they are called sporangiospores.
The spores are not heat resistant but they do withstand dessication
and have considerable adaptive valve (known as exospores)
Most are non motile, if present confined to flagellated spores
(zoospores)
 Cell wall composition
Actinomycetes cell wall composition varies greatly among different
groups and is of great taxonomic importance. Four major cell wall
types can be distinguished according to 3 features of peptidoglycan
composition and structure.
1. Amino acid in tetra peptide side chain position 3 (DAPI)
2. Presence of glycine in interpeptide bridges.
3. Peptidoglycan sugar content.
Some other taxonomically valuable properties are:
 Morphology and colour of mycelia and sporangia.
 Surface features.
 Arrangement of conidiospores.
 The % G+C content in DNA.
Phospholipid of cell membrane.
Spore heat resistant.
They have considerable practical signficance.
They are primarily soil inhabitants and are widely distributed.
They can degrade a no. of organic compounds and are
extremely important in mineralization of organic matter.
They are medically important because they can produce large
number of antibiotics.
 Actinobacteria Distributed on the basis of 16s rRNA sequence
5 subclass
6 orders
14 suborders
40 families
Actinomycineae: They are irregularly shaped, non sporing, gram
positive, rods, aerobic.
Rods may be staight or slightly curved, usually have swelling, club
shaped.
Requires CO2 for best growth.
Cell wall contains lysine and not glycine (DAPI)
Oral cavity is their prefered habitat.