Major & Minor Essential elements

Essential element a chemical nutrient that is vital for the successful growth and development of an
organism. Elements needed in relatively large amounts are termed macronutrients; those needed
only in small or minute quantities are called micronutrients or trace elements. Macronutrient
elements include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium,
and calcium. Important micronutrient elements include iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron,
molybdenum, and cobalt.

Major elements

 Macronutrients are: Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N), Hydrogen(H), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K),
Sulphur (S), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sodium (Na).
 The tissues of plants and animals are made up of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen
(O) and about 15 mineral elements.
 The elements C, H and O along with Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Sulphur (S) make
up the living matter in plants and animals, with Calcium and Phosphorus forming animal
skeletal bones.
 The other elements are used in various body systems of plants and animals driven by
enzymes and for nervous functions.
 An enzyme is a chemical used in a biological process but remains chemically unchanged.

Minor elements

 Minor elements or micronutrients are: Boron (B), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mg), Copper
(Cu), Zinc (Zn), Molybdenum (Mo), Chlorine (Cl), Cobalt (Co), Selenium (Se), Iodine (I).
 All the trace elements are present in the soil, but how much and which ones get
into plants depends on the soil parent material (where the soil came from), the
soil pH, moisture, texture and organic matter content.
 Old soils, which have been weathered and leached under high rainfall, have lower
trace elements than young soils in drier areas.
 As soil pH goes up, the availability of trace elements (except Molybdenum) falls.
Molybdenum is more available in acid soils.
 Soil organic matter is important in helping to bind and retain Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn in
the soil.
 Low moisture soils reduce the availability of Cobalt and Boron.
 Over time, trace element levels are lost from a grazing system, unless replaced in
fertilisers.
 Copper is important in many aspects of animal health, and also for the nitrogen-
fixing bacteria on clover roots.
 Cobalt is important as the bacteria in the rumen use it.
  Selenium deficiency is seen as the classical white muscle disease in lambs and
calves.
 Iodine is associated with thyroid function in animals.
Role of water in cell Growth

 All bacteria need moisture, or water, in a "useable" or "available" form to grow and
reproduce.
 Bacteria use the water to take in food and to remove unwanted waste products.
 Water activity (aw) is the measure of available water in a food.
 The water activity scale runs from 0 to 1.0.
 The lower the water activity, the less water is available in a form that can be used by
bacteria.
 The water activity of pure water is 1.0 - thus the water activity of all foods falls
below this number.
 However, many food products, particularly meat, poultry, seafood and dairy
products, have a water activity of 0.95-0.99.
 Unfortunately, this is the optimum range for many of the spoilage and disease-
causing bacteria.
 Most fresh seafood products have a water activity above 0.98 - perfect for bacterial
growth!!! Pathogenic bacteria do not grow well or produce toxin below 0.85 and
most require 0.92 or above.
 Freezing, drying, or salting are ways to reduce available water to bacteria, and slow
down their growth.

Role of pH in Cell growth

 Each species of microbe has its own characteristic range of pH values in which it
grows and reproduces best.
 Most bacteria grow best around neutral pH values (6.5 - 7.0), but some thrive in
very acid conditions and some can even tolerate a pH as low as 1.0. Such acid loving
microbes are called acidophiles.
 Even though they can live in very acid environments, their internal pH is much
closer to neutral values.
  Some bacteria produce acid as they grow. This acid is excreted and lowers the pH or
the surrounding environment. This eventually brings bacterial growth to a halt
unless something else in the environment neutralizes the bacterial acid.
 When grown in broth, a buffering agent can be used to mop up the excess acid, and
keep the pH of the growing culture at optimum values.
 The optimum growth pH is the most favorable pH for the growth of an organism.
The lowest pH value that an organism can tolerate is called the minimum growth pH
and the highest pH is the maximum growth pH.
 These values can cover a wide range, which is important for the preservation of food
and to microorganisms’ survival in the stomach.
 For example, the optimum growth pH of Salmonella spp. is 7.0–7.5, but the minimum
growth pH is closer to 4.2.

Figure showing the approximate pH ranges for the growth of the different classes of pH-
specific prokaryotes. Each curve has an optimal pH and extreme pH values at which growth
is much reduced. Most bacteria are neutrophiles and grow best at near-neutral pH (centre
curve). Acidophiles have optimal growth at pH values near 3 and alkaliphiles have optimal
growth at pH values above 9.
Neutrophiles
 Most bacteria are neutrophiles, meaning they grow optimally at a pH within one or
two pH units of the neutral pH of 7, between 5 and 8.
 Most familiar bacteria, like Escherichia coli, staphylococci, and Salmonella spp. are
neutrophiles and do not fare well in the acidic pH of the stomach.
 However, there are pathogenic strains of E. coli, S. typhi, and other species of
intestinal pathogens that are much more resistant to stomach acid. In comparison,
fungi thrive at slightly acidic pH values of 5.0–6.0.
Acidophiles
 Microorganisms that grow optimally at a pH less than 5 are called acidophiles. For
example, the sulphur-oxidizing Sulfolobus spp. isolated from sulphur mud fields and
hot springs in Yellowstone National Park are extreme acidophiles.
 These archaea survive at pH values of 2.5–3.5. Species of the archaean
genus Ferroplasma live in acid mine drainage at pH values of 0–2.9.
  Lactobacillus bacteria, which are an important part of the normal microbiota of the
vagina, can tolerate acidic environments at pH values 3.5–6.8 and also contribute to
the acidity of the vagina (pH of 4, except at the onset of menstruation) through their
metabolic production of lactic acid.

Alkaliphiles
 At the other end of the spectrum are alkaliphiles, microorganisms that have pH
optima between 8.0 and 11. 
 Vibrio cholerae, the pathogenic agent of cholera, grows best at the slightly basic pH
of 8.0; it can survive pH values of 11.0 but is inactivated by the acid of the stomach.
Key Points
 Neutrophiles are organisms that thrive in neutral (pH 7) environments.
 Alkaliphiles are microbes that thrive in alkaline (pH 9-11) environments.
 Acidophilic organisms are those that thrive under highly acidic conditions (usually
at pH 2.0 or below).

Role of Osmosis and diffusion in cell growth

Key Terms
 osmosis: the net movement of solvent molecules from a region of high solvent
potential to a region of lower solvent potential through a partially permeable
membrane
 hypotonic: Having a lower osmotic pressure than another.
 isotonic: Having the same osmotic pressure.
 hypertonic: Having a greater osmotic pressure than another.
 halophile: Organisms that thrive in high salt concentrations.

 Effects of Osmosis
 Osmosis causes water to flow from an area of low solute concentration to an area of
high solute concentration until the two areas have an equal ratio of solute to water.
  Normally, the solute diffuses toward equilibrium as well; however, all cells are
surrounded by a lipid bilayer cell membrane which permits the flow of water in and
out of the cell but restricts the flow of solute under many circumstances.

 As a result, when a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water rushes into the
membrane, increasing its volume. Eventually, the cell’s membrane is enlarged such
that it pushes against the cell’s rigid wall.

 In an isotonic solution, water flows into the cell at the same rate it flows out. When a
cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water actually flows out of the cell into the
surrounding solution causing the cells to shrink and lose its turgidity.

 Two of the most common substances used to create hypertonic environment for
microorganisms and prevent them from growing are salt and sugar. They are widely
applied in food preservation.

 Table salt (sodium chloride) is the primary ingredient used in meat curing. Removal
of water and addition of salt to meat creates a solute-rich environment where
osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, thereby retarding their
growth. Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%.

Diffusion
 The process of moving particles from a region of higher concentration to the region
of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached. 
 Simple diffusion does not require energy in order to take place; however, facilitated
diffusion requires ATP.
 An example of diffusion of the perfume sprays into the air by spreading the aroma.