Chapter 13 Lecture

Research Techniques: For

the Health Sciences
Fifth Edition

Techniques for Data

Presentation

R. Eric Heidel, PhD

University of Tennessee Graduate
School of Medicine

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 Table Presentations

• Tables usually represent quantitative material,

and sometimes words that present qualitative
comparisons or descriptive information.
• Word tables should not repeat what has been
discussed in the text but rather illuminate that
discussion.
• The analysis of original data should be
presented in these tables.

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 Table Presentations (cont'd)

• Data should be presented so that their

significance is easily recognized by the reader.
• Tables are used to present information in the
form of totals and subtotals, rank-order
relationships, and results of statistical analysis.
• There are four other considerations once you
have decided what data belong in the table.

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 Relating the Tables to the Text

• A good table should supplement the text of the

paper.
• Refer to all tables and their data in the text.
• A discussion of the highlights of the table is all
that is necessary in the paper.
• Each table should have a brief introduction that
explains the manner in which the data are
presented and suggests their general meaning.

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 Relating the Tables to the Text (cont'd)

• Two rules apply to the inclusion of tables:

– Each table should be understandable without
reference to the text.
– The text should be complete so that the
reader may follow it without referring to the
tables.
• In the text, tables are referred to by their
numbers. They are numbered consecutively.
• There are five rules that may be helpful in table
placement.

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 Single-Variable Tables

• They are usually used in a descriptive or

explanatory study.
• Measurements such as range, mean, mode, or
median may be depicted.
• Frequency distributions and grouped data may
be presented.

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 Percentage Tables

• Can provide an efficient way to summarize

information.
• These data can be reported in single- or
multiple-variable form.
• An indication of sample size is also important so
that the percentages will not be misleading.

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 Contingency (Bivariate) Tables

• Tables are used to display the way the values of

the variables are associated.
• Interrelationships are examined and are thus
called cross-tabulations or contingency
tables.
• All combinations of categories of all the
variables are presented.

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 Contingency (Bivariate) Tables (cont'd)

• The most usual form is the two-variable

(bivariate) table, with each variable being
dichotomous.
• Two dichotomous variables present a table with
four cells, sometimes labeled a fourfold table.
• One variable has been termed the column
variable and is labeled across the top so its
categories form vertical columns down the page
and usually represent the independent variable.

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 Contingency (Bivariate) Tables (cont'd)

• The row variable is labeled on the left margin,

forming categories of rows across the page and
thus is the dependent variable.
– The intersections of the categories of these
two variables form the interior of the table.
• An easy way to construct this contingency table
is to list the total frequencies in each category
for each variable.
– The simplest dichotomous variables and
those most frequently used are gender and
race.
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 Table Format

• Table Numbers
– All tables should be numbered consecutively
with Arabic numerals.
– In a book chapter, use sequential numbers
preceded by the chapter number and a
decimal point.
– Refer to the tables by number, not by title.
– Identify tables of the appendix with capital
letters and Arabic numerals.

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 Table Format (cont'd)

• Table Titles
– Titles should be clear and brief.
– A good table title explains clearly what the
data will tell the reader.

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 Figure Presentations

• Figures encompass any type of illustration other

than a table.
• Purpose of Figures
– Figures refer to charts, graphs, drawings,
maps, and photographs.
– They are used to present data very clearly
and concisely.

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 Figure Presentations (cont'd)

– If the data show trends, they could be better

augmented by a figure rather than a table.
– A good figure should not duplicate what is
contained in the text, should be easy to read
and understand, and should be carefully
prepared.

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 Figure Presentations (cont'd)

• Types of Figures
– Graphs
• Usually show how things are compared or
distributed
• Come in the form of percentages or absolute
values

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 Figure Presentations (cont'd)

• There are several types of graphs:

– Line graphs show trends or results of a
line series experiment.
– Bar graphs present one kind of data.
– Circle graphs show percentages and
proportion.
– Scatter graphs consist of single dots that
are not joined together. The dots
represent where the variables intersect,
and a cluster of dots along a diagonal
indicates a correlation.
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 Figure Presentations (cont'd)

– Charts
• Can describe a relationship between group
segments in the sequence of operations in a
process
• Usually depicted by boxes that are connected by
lines

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 Figure Presentations (cont'd)

– Drawings
• Usually prepared by a professional artist because
they are difficult to accomplish
• Should be as simple as possible so that the
author's idea can be easily conveyed
• Enable the author to augment the manuscript by
providing ideas and images from different
viewpoints

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 Figure Presentations (cont'd)

– Photographs
• They can provide focus and interest points and
add something of value to the words in a
manuscript.
• There should be a strong contrast between the
subject and the background.
• The use of black-and-white film is often mandatory.
• When using a photograph from another source,
obtain the original picture; photographs of
photographs do not reproduce adequately.
• You must also obtain written permission to reprint
from the copyright holder and must acknowledge
the holder in the figure caption.
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 Citing of Figures

• When using a figure, it should be placed as close

as possible to the first reference made to it in the
manuscript.
• Figures should be consecutively numbered with
Arabic numerals in the order as they are
mentioned.
• Figures can be linked to a chapter number, if
appropriate.
• In the manuscript refer to figures by numbers.
• Avoid writing "see the figure above or below" on a
specific page because the placement of figures
cannot be determined until the manuscript is
typeset.
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 Captions and Legends

• Caption
– Caption is the explanation of the figure and is
placed below it.
– It describes the contents of the figure in a
sentence or a phrase.
– Information that is needed to clarify the limits
of measurement should be placed in
parentheses after the caption.
– All terminology in the text and the figures
should agree.

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 Captions and Legends (cont'd)

• Legend
– A key to the symbols in the figure
– Standard legend symbols: ■, ▲, and ●
– The legend is put into the figure and should
have the same kind and size of lettering that
is utilized in the figure.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.