Measurement of Physical Parameters Course Content

Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Greater Noida
Measurement of Physical Parameters
Unit: 2
Sensors &
Its Applications NEHA JAIN
(AEC 0304) Assistant Professor, EN dept.
Course Details: NIET, Greater Noida
Specialization: Control and
B Tech –CSE (IOT) 3rd Sem
Automation
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 1

Content
 Evaluation Scheme
 Subject Syllabus
 Branch Wise Applications
 Course Objective
 Course Outcome (COs)
 Program Outcomes (POs)
 CO-PO Mapping
 Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)
 CO-PSO Mapping
 Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)
 Result Analysis (Departmental, Subject and Individual Faculty)
 End Semester Question Paper Templates (offline Pattern/ online
Pattern

Content
 Prerequisite and Recap
 Brief Introduction about the subject with videos
 Unit Content
 Unit Objective
 Topic Objective/ Topic Outcome
 Lecture related to topic
 Daily Quiz
 Weekly Assignments
 Topic Links
 MCQ ( End of Unit)
 Glossary Questions
Content
 Old Question Papers (Sessional +University)
 Expected Questions
 Summary

Evaluation Scheme

Syllabus
Course Code & Course Title AEC0304 (Sensor and its Applications) L T P (3 1 0) Credits (4)
Pre-requisites: Basic Electrical Engineering
Syllabus
Unit1 Sensors and Transducers: Sensors and Transducers: Definition, Classification of sensors, Measurement of 8 hours
displacement using Potentiometer, LVDT & Optical Encoder, Measurement of force using strain gauge,
Measurement of pressure using LVDT based diaphragm & piezoelectric sensor, Introduction to sensors
most widely used in computer and mobile phones: Temperature, Pressure, Humidity, Toxic Gas, pH
sensor, sound sensor, magnetic field sensor, Motion (Infra-red) sensor, barometer, and Gyroscope.
Unit 2 Measurement of physical parameters: Measurement of temperature using Thermistors, Thermocouple & 8 hours
RTD, Concept of thermal imaging, Measurement of position using Hall effect sensors, Proximity sensors:
Inductive & Capacitive, Use of proximity sensor as accelerometer and vibration sensor, Working
Principles of Flow Sensors: Ultrasonic &Laser, Level Sensors: Ultrasonic & Capacitive.
Unit 3 Virtual Instrumentation: Graphical programming techniques, Data types, Advantage of Virtual 8 hours
Instrumentation techniques, Concept of WHILE & FOR loops, Arrays, Clusters & graphs, Structures:
Case, Sequence & Formula nodes, Need of software based instruments for industrial automation.
Unit 4 Data Acquisition Methods: Basic block diagram, Analog and Digital IO, Counters, Timers, Types of ADC: 8 hours
successive approximation and sigma-delta, Types of DAC: Weighted Resistor and R-2RLadder type, Use
of Data Sockets for Networked Communication.
Unit 5 Intelligent Sensors: General Structure of smart sensors & its components, Characteristic of smart sensors: 8 hours
Self calibration, Self-testing & self-communicating, Selection of Sensors for Practical Applications,
Application of smart sensors: Automatic robot control & automobile engine control.
Branch Wise Applications
 Industry Automation
 Traffic Monitoring
 Fleet Management
 Agriculture
 Hospitality
 Wearables
 Water supply
 Academic
 Power Plants
 Smart grid and energy saving
 Maintenance Management
 Medical
 Defence
Course Objective
Course •To impart the students to have a basic knowledge of
Objective 1 concepts and use of sensors for measurement of
displacement, force and pressure.
Course •To impart the students to have a knowledge of commonly used
Objective 2 sensors in industry for measurement of temperature, position,
acceleration, vibration sensor, flow and level.
•To understand the students about the demonstration the use of

Course
Virtual instrumentation in automation industries.
Objective 3
Course •To understand the students about the identification of

Objective 4 appropriate data acquisition methods.
Course •To impart the students to have knowledge about applications

Objective 5 of smart and advanced sensors for industry automation.
Course Outcomes
Once the student has successfully completed this course, he/she will be
able to:
Course use of sensors for measurement of displacement ,
K3
Outcome 1 force and pressure.
Employ and analyze commonly used sensors in
Course
industry for measurement of temperature, position, K4
Outcome 2
accelerometer, vibration sensor, flow and level.
Course Use of virtual instrumentation in automation
K1, K3
Outcome 3 industries.
Course Identify appropriate data acquisition methods for K1, K2

Outcome 4 smart systems.
Course Design various real time products using smart sensors.

K2, K5
Outcome 5
Program Outcomes
PO1. Engineering knowledge
PO2. Problem analysis
PO3. Design/development of solutions
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems
PO5. Modern tool usage
PO6. The engineer and society
PO7. Environment and sustainability
PO8. Ethics
PO9. Individual and team work
PO10. Communication
PO11. Project management and finance
PO12. Project management and finance

Program Specific Outcomes
PSO1.
PSO2.
PSO3.

CO-PO Mapping
CO-PO Mapping
COs PROGRAM OUTCOMES

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 3 2 2 1 3 2 1 1 3 2 - 2
CO2 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 - 3 3 2 3
CO3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 - 2 3 2 2
CO4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2
CO5 3 3 3 3 3 3 - 3 3 1 2 2
(1/2/3 indicates the strength of Correlation) 3- strong,

2-Medium,
1- Weak

CO-PO and PSO Mapping
CO-PSO Mapping
PSOs COURSE OUTCOMES
CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5

PSO1
PSO2
PSO3
(1/2/3 indicates the strength of Correlation) 3- strong,

2-Medium,
1- Weak

Program Education Objectives
PEO1.
PEO2.
PEO3.

Result Analysis (Departmental, Subject and
Individual Faculty)

End Semester Question Paper Template
B.Tech (Semester III Theory Examination 2020-21) Total Marks : 100
Note: Attempt all sections. If require any missing data, then choose suitably. Time: 3 hours
Section A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. 2 X 10 = 20
Q. No. Question Marks CO
a. to j 2
Section B
2. Attempt any three of the following 3 X 10 = 30
Q. No. Question Marks CO
a to e 10
Section C
Question no. 3,4,5,6,7. Attempt any one of the following 1 X 10 = 10
a 10
b 10

Text Books
Text Books
1. DVS Murthy, Transducers and Instrumentation, PHI 2nd Edition 2013
2. D Patranabis, Sensors and Transducers, PHI 2nd Edition 2013.
3. S. Gupta, J.P. Gupta / PC interfacing for Data Acquisition & Process Control, 2nd ED /
Instrument Society
of America, 1994.
4. Gary Johnson / Lab VIEW Graphical Programing II Edition / McGraw Hill 1997.
Reference Books
1. Arun K. Ghosh, Introduction to measurements and Instrumentation, PHI, 4th Edition 2012.
2. A.D. Helfrick and W.D. cooper, Modern Electronic Instrumentation & Measurement
Techniques, PHI –
2001
3. Hermann K.P. Neubert, “Instrument Transducers” 2nd Edition 2012, Oxford University Press.
4. John P. Bentley, Principles of measurement Systems, Pearson Education. 5. S. M. Sze,
Semiconductor
sensors, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
5. E. A. Doebelin, Measurement systems: application & design, Mc Graw Hill.
6. S. M. Sze, Semiconductor sensors, John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Prerequisite and Recap
Unit Unit Name Prerequisite Recap

1 Sensors and Signals & Energy Signals Parameters
Transducers Transformation
2 Sensors and Signals & Energy Signals Parameters
Transducers Transformation
3 Virtual Study of System Sensors
Instrumentation Modeling
4 Data Study of Basic Sensors and
Acquisition Electronics Transducers
Methods
5 Smart Sensors Basic study of Parameters of
sensors Sensors

Brief Introduction about the subject with
videos

Content
UNIT2
 Measurement of temperature using
i. Thermistor
ii. Thermocouple
iii. Thermopile
iv. RTD
 Concept of thermal imaging
 Measurement of position using Hall effect sensors
 Proximity sensors: Inductive & Capacitive
 Proximity sensors as accelerometer & vibration
sensor
Flow Sensors:Ultrasonic & LASER
Level Sensors :Ultrasonic & Capacitive

Objective of Unit
Unit 2 This unit covers various types of the

sensor whose purpose is to detect events or
changes in its environment and send the
information to other electronics, frequently a
computer processor for engineering purpose.

Objective of Topics
S.No. Topic Objective Topic Outcomes

1. Temperature To measure & monitor the Students will be
Sensors temperature of a heating able to apply the
system for different use of sensor for
temperature ranges measurement of
Temperature.
2. Position To find out the location of Students will be
Sensors a stationary or moving able to apply the
object /point . use of sensor for
measurement of
displacement.

Objective of Topics
S.No. Topic Objective Topic Outcomes
3. Flow To measure rate Students will be able to

Sensors of flow & supplied apply the use of sensor
amount of fluid . for measuring the flow
rate of moving fluid.
4. Level To measure Students will be able to

Sensors substances that are apply the use of sensor
inside a container or for measurement of
in their natural state level of substances.

TO and CO Mapping
TOs COURSE OUTCOMES

CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5
TO1 2 3 3 3 3
TO2 3 3 2 3 3
TO3 2 3 1 1 2
TO4 2 3 1 1 2
(1/2/3 indicates the strength of Correlation)

3- Strong
2- Medium
1- Weak

Recap:
• Signals parameters
• signals and energy Transformation
Prerequisite:
• Basic knowledge of Sensors and Transducers
• Basic Electronics
• Temperature coefficient of material

Measurement of temperature using
Thermistor(CO2)
 A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose
resistance is dependent on temperature. The term is a combination of
“thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of metallic oxides, pressed into a
bead, disk, or cylindrical shape and then encapsulated with an
impermeable material such as epoxy or glass.
The material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor
material such as a sintered metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides,
chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) or doped
polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and
other compounds. As the temperature of semiconductor material
increases the number of electrons able to move about increases which
results in more current in the material and reduced resistance.
Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with
increasing temperature.

Thermistor(CO2)
 Thermistors are rugged and small in dimensions. They exhibit
nonlinear response characteristics. Thermistors are available in the
form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip.
 Fig. shows the construction of a bead type thermistor. It has a small

bead of dimension from 0.5 mm to 5 mm coated with ceramic or
glass material. The bead is connected to an electric circuit through
two leads. To protect from the environment, the leads are contained
in a stainless steel tube.
Fig. Schematic of a thermistor

Thermistor(CO2)
Thermistor Types
There are two types of thermistors:
1. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor
2. Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor
NTC Thermistor
In an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases, resistance
decreases. And when temperature decreases, resistance increases. Hence in
an NTC thermistor temperature and resistance are inversely proportional.
These are the most common type of thermistor.
The relationship between resistance and temperature in an NTC thermistor
is governed by the following expression:

Thermistor(CO2)
• Where:
• RT is the resistance at temperature T (K) Fig: Resistance-Temperature
• R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 (K) Characteristics
• T0 is the reference temperature (normally 25oC)

• β is a constant, its value is dependant on the characteristics of the
material. The nominal value is taken as 4000.
2. PTC Thermistor
PTC thermistor has the direct relationship between temperature and
resistance. When temperature increases, the resistance increases. And
when temperature decreases, resistance decreases. Hence in a PTC
thermistor temperature and resistance are proportional.
Thermistor(CO2)
Thermistors are available in variety of shapes and sizes as shown in the
Fig.
a) Smallest in size are the beads with a diameter of 0.15 mm to 1.25 mm.
Beads may be sealed in the tips of solid glass rods to form probes.
b) Disks and washers are made by pressing thermistor material under high
pressure into flat cylindrical shapes.
Thermistor(CO2)
Applications of Thermistors
 Application Range: -100°C to +350°C
To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the
engine.
To monitor the temperature of an incubator.
Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats.
To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging.
To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers.
To maintain correct temperature in the food handling and processing
industry equipment's.
To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters,
coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc.

Thermistor(CO2)
Advantages of Thermistors
Small size
Low cost
Very fast response over low temperature range
High sensitivity and good stability
Disadvantages of Thermistors
 Non linear characteristics
Unsuitable for wide temperature range
Need external dc power supply for its operation.

Thermistor(CO2)
Q. A thermistor has a resistance of 3980 Ω at the ice point and 794 Ω
at 50 °C. If the equation relating resistance R to absolute temperature
T is:
Determine the constants a and b.the range of resistances to be
measured if the instrument is to measure temperatures in the range 40-
100 °C.
Solution: Resistance at 0°C (R0)= 3980 ohm
Resistance at 50°C= 794 ohm
absolute temperature at 0°C = 0+273= 273 °K
absolute temperature at 50°C= 50+273= 323°K
At 0°C, 3980 = a. 3980. exp (b/273) ……..(1.) a= 30x10-6

At 50°C 794 = a. 3980. exp (b/323) …… (2.) b= 2843
Resistance at 40 C = 1051 ohm
Resistance at 100 C = 244ohm

Daily Quiz
 Thermistor is a contraction _________

a) thermal resistor
b) laser resistor
c) electric resistor
d) mechanical resistor
 What are the applications of thermistors?
 Thermistors have ________
a) positive temperature coefficient
b) negative temperature coefficient
c) zero temperature coefficient
d) infinite temperature coefficient

Thermocouple(CO2)
Thermocouple?
The thermocouple can be defined as a kind of temperature sensor that is
used to measure the temperature at one specific point in the form of the
EMF or an electric current. This sensor comprises two dissimilar metal
wires that are connected together to form two junctions.
• One junction is connected to unknown body (whose temperature is
measured) called Hot junction/measuring junction.
• And the other junction is known as temperature called Cold/ Reference
Junction.
• Generally, thermocouples are used for measuring temperature over large

range i.e. -270 to 3000 degree Celsius.
Thermocouple(CO2)
Working Principle of Thermocouple
1. Thomson Effect: The Thomson effect states that a potential gradient
exists even in a single conductor having the temperature gradient.
If the temperature gradient exist along any one metal or both the metal of
thermocouple then junction emf may be slightly altered . This effect is
called as Thomson effect.
2. Peltier Effect: The Peltier effect states that when two dissimilar
metals form a closed loop. If externally current forced to flow through a
closed loop, then one junction will get heated and other will become
cool.
3. Seebeck Effect: The seebeck effect states that whenever two
dissimilar metals are connected together to form two junctions out of
which one junction is subjected to high temperature and another is
subjected to low temperature, then EMF induced proportional to
temperature difference between two junctions.
Note: Due to small potential Thomson and Peltier effects are neglected.
Thermocouple(CO2)
Working of Thermocouple
In the diagram, the junctions are denoted by P & Q, and the temperatures
are denoted by T1, & T2. When the temperature of the junction is
dissimilar from each other, then the electromagnetic force generates in the
circuit.
If the temp. at both the junction are equal, then same EMF will be
generated and net current flowing through the circuit is Zero.
The EMF produced in the thermocouple is given by:
E = a (∆Ө) + b (∆Ө)^2
Where,
∆Ө = the temperature difference among the hot
thermocouple junction end as well as the
reference thermocouple junction end, Q
P
a & b = constants
Generally, a is greater than b. So, E = a (∆Ө)
Change in Temperature: ∆Ө = E/a
Fig: Working of Thermocouple
Thermocouple(CO2)
Laws of Thermocouples
a) Law of homogeneous circuits : If two thermocouple junctions are at
T1 and T2, then the thermal emf generated is independent and
unaffected by any temperature distribution along the wires.
Fig. Law of homogeneous circuits
In above Figure, a thermocouple is shown with junction temperatures at

T1 and T2. Along the thermocouple wires, the temperature is T3 and T4.
The thermocouple emf is, however, still a function of only the
temperature gradient T2 – T1.
b) Law of intermediate metals: The law of intermediate metals states
that a third metal may be inserted into a thermocouple system without
affecting the emf generated, if, and only if, the junctions with the third
metal are kept at the same temperature.
Thermocouple(CO2)
Fig. Law of intermediate metals

c) Law of intermediate temperatures
The law of intermediate temperatures states that the sum of the emf
developed by a thermocouple with its junctions at temperatures T1 and
T2, and with its junctions at temperatures T2 and T3, will be the same as
the emf developed if the thermocouple junctions are at temperatures T1
and T3
Fig. Law of intermediate temperatures

Thermocouple(CO2)
Types of Thermocouple
Thermocouples are available in different combinations of metals or
calibrations. The most common are the "Base Metal" thermocouples
known as Types J, K, T, E and N. There are also high temperature
calibrations - also known as Noble Metal thermocouples - Types R, S,
C and GB.
Each calibration has a different temperature range and environment,
although the maximum temperature varies with the diameter of the
wire used in the thermocouple.
K Type Thermocouples are known as general purpose thermocouple
due to its low cost and temperature range.

Thermocouple(CO2)

Thermocouple(CO2)
Applications of Thermocouples
 To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making

process.
 Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical
production and petroleum refineries.
 Testing of heating appliance safety.
 Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns.
 Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts.
 Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting
process in the steel, iron and aluminium industry.

Thermocouple(CO2)
Table: Thermocouple materials and temperature ranges

Thermocouple(CO2)
Advantages of Thermocouple
 It has rugged construction.
 It has a temperature range from —270 °C to 2700 °C.
 Using extension leads and compensating cables, long distances
transmission for temperature measurement is possible.
 Bridge circuits are not required for temperature measurement.
 Comparatively cheaper in cost.
 Calibration checks can be easily performed.
 Thermocouples offer good reproducibility.
 Speed of response is high compared to the filled system thermometer.
 Measurement accuracy is quite good.

Thermocouple(CO2)
Disadvantages of Thermocouple
 Cold junction and other compensation is essential for accuracy.
 They exhibit non-linearity in the emf versus temperature
characteristics.
 To avoid stray electrical signal pickup, proper separation of extension
leads from thermocouple wire is essential.
 In many applications, the signals need to be amplified.

Thermopile(CO2)
 A thermopile is an electronic device that converts thermal energy

into electrical energy. It is composed of several thermocouples
connected usually in series or, less commonly, in parallel.
 Four thermocouples are connected in series, with wire A being
positive and B being negative in each thermocouple.
 The total emf between points 1 to 5 is the sum of individual
thermocouple emf. An arrangement of this type is called a
Thermopile and is used to obtain increased sensitivity and greater
absolute emf from a thermocouple installation.

Thermopile(CO2)
Fig. Thermocouples in Series and Parallel (Thermopile)
Figure shows four thermocouples in parallel. This arrangement provides a large

current but emf is same as that of any one thermocouple.

Thermopile(CO2)
• A thermopile is an array of several thermocouples connected in
series. A thermopile with N thermocouples will output a voltage N
times bigger than the one produced by a single thermocouple,
increasing the sensitivity of the transducer.
• Thermopile, composed of multiple thermocouples in series. If both

the right and left junctions are same temperature, voltage cancel out
of zero (Peltier effect). However, if one sided is heated and other side
cooled, resulting total output voltage is equal to the sum of junction
voltage differentials (seebeck effect).
• Thermopiles are also used to generate electrical energy from, for

instance, heat from electrical components, solar wind, radioactive
materials, or combustion. The process is also an example of the
Peltier Effect (electric current transferring heat energy) as the process
transfers heat from the hot to the cold junctions.
Thermopile(CO2)
Applications:
Thermopile detectors are thermal detectors that utilize the Seebeck effect
in which a thermal electromotive force is generated in proportion to the
incident infrared light energy. Thermopile detectors themselves have no
wavelength dependence and so are used with various types of window
materials for diverse applications such as temperature measurement,
human body sensing, and gas analysis.
Advantages of Thermopile
• No need of external power supply
• Stable response to DC radiation emitted from temperature measuring
bodies
• Stable Response Characteristics

Thermocouple(CO2)
Q. A thermocouple circuit uses a chromel- alumel thermocouple which
gives of 33.3 mV when measuring a temperature of 800°C with
reference temperature 0°C. The resistance of the meter coil Rm is 50Ω
and a current of 0.1 mA gives full scale deflection. The resistance of
junctions and leads Re is 12Ω. Calculate
1. Resistance of the series resistance if temperature of 800°C is given
full scale deflection.
Ans. 271 ohm
2. The appropriate error due to rise of 1Ω in Re.
Ans. -2.4°C
3. The appropriate error due to rise of 10°C in the copper coil of meter.
The resistance temperature coefficient of coil is .00426/°C.
Ans. -5.12°C

Thermocouple(CO2)
Solution:
1. E= I( Rm+ Rs + Re )
Rs = (E/I)-Rm-Re = 333-50-12 = 271 ohm…….Answer
2. Change in current due to increased resistance, I’=E/(Rm+ Rs + Re +1)= .

0997mA
Approximate error in temperature = {(I’- I)/I}* 800 =-2.4°C ….Answer
3. Change in resistance due to rise in temperature = Rm*.00426*10 = 2.13

ohm
Change in current due to change in resistance, I’’=E/(Rm+ Rs + Re +2.13)=
.0994mA
Approximate error in temperature = {(I’’- I)/I}* 800 =-5.12°C Answer

Thermocouple(CO2)
Q. A chromel – Alumel thermocouple is assumed to have nearly

linear operating range upto 1100°C with an emf of 45.14mV at this
temperature and the reference junction being 0°C. the thermocouple
is exposed to a temperature of 840°C. A potentiometer is used as the
cold junction and its temperature is 25°C. Calculate the emf
indicated by the potentiometer.
Answer: 33.446mV

Thermocouple(CO2)
Solution: Sensitivity of thermocouple = Change in output /change in
input
= output voltage/ temperature
difference
= 45.14/ (1100-0) = .041 mV/°C
Ouput voltage at 25°C , E25 -E0= Senstivity * temperature
= .041 mV/°C * 25°C = 1.025 mV
Ouput voltage at 840°C, E840 - E0= Senstivity * temperature
= .041 mV/°C * 840°C = 34.47 mV
emf indicated by potentiometer + emf indicated by 25°C = emf

indicated by 840°C
E25-E840 + E0-E25 = E0-E840
Emf indicated by Potentiometer, E25-E840 = (E0-E840 ) – ( E0-E25)
= – 34.47 + 1.025
= -33.446mV
12/14/2021
E840 Neha
- EJain25 = 33.446
S&A
mVUnit :2 53
Daily Quiz
 Thermocouple is a ______________
a) Primary device
b) Secondary transducer
c) Tertiary transducer
d) None of the mentioned
 Operation of thermocouple is governed by _______________
a) Peltier effect
b) Seebeck effect
c) Thomson effect
d) All of the mentioned
 Peltier effect is reverse of seebeck effect ?
 Which of the element is used as a thermocouple in nuclear
reactor?

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
(CO2)
RTD work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal
changes due to change in its temperature.
The variation of resistance R with temperature T can be represented
by the following relationship for most of the metals are as:
R  R0 (1  1T   2T 2  .........   nT n  ......)

Where =Rresistance at temperature T=0 and
1 ,  2 ,  3 .........
. n
0
are constants or resistance temperature
coefficients.
The
Where sensor R=isconductor
usually made to have
resistance at at°C
resistance of 100
RΩRat0 (10°C.
T )
 = Resistance temperature coefficient
T = difference between operating and reference temperature.
• All metals produce a positive change in resistance with temperature.
• RTD also known as Resistance Thermometer or Electrical Resistance
Thermometer or Conductive Sensor.
(CO2)
Materials or metals used for RTD
• Gold and Silver (rarely used due to low resistivity- more material will
have to use)
• Tungsten (high resistivity but reversed for high temp. applications
because of that it is extremely brittle and difficult to work)
• Nickel wires (limited temperature range and tend to drift with time and
non linear characteristics)
• Copper ( low resistivity but low cost & low linearity make its
economical alternative and temperature limit up to 120°)
• Platinum (high accuracy, high resistivity, excellent stability

withstand with high temperature)

(CO2)
Requirements of conductor material
Requirements of conductor material to be used in RTD:-
• The change in resistance of material per unit change in temperature
should be as large as possible.
• The material should have a high value of resistivity so that minimum
volume of material is used for construction of RTD.
• The resistance of materials should have a continuous and stable
relationship with temperature.
Construction of RTD
RTD has the following three types of construction scheme.
1. General Type
2. Laboratory Type
3. Industrial Type

(CO2)
General type RTD
• Resistance type temperature bulbs use sensing elements in the form of
wires or foil.
• The films deposited on insulating surfaces are also used for
temperature sensing.
• In this wire type, the arrangement is commonly a helical coil wound
as a double wire to avoid inductive effects.
Laboratory Type RTD
• It have the temperature sensing
element wound on a cross mica
former and enclosed in a Pyrex tube
as shown in fig.1.
• The tube may be evacuated or filled
with in glass to protect the platinum.

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (CO2)
Industrial Type
 It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone bridge. The
element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a
sheath. A small amount of current is continuously passing though
the coil. As the temperature changes the resistance of the coil
changes which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge.
 RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or coil. They
are generally made of metals such as platinum, nickel or nickel-
copper alloys. Platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass
adhesive in a ceramic tube is used to measure the temperature in a
metal furnace.
Fig. Construction of a Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

(CO2)
Characteristics of materials used for RTD
Figure shows that the curves are
nearly linear.
• Only very short temperature
spans are considered. So the
linearity is more evident.
• This fact is employed to
developed approximate
analytical equations for
resistance versus temperature
for a particular metal.
Fig. Characteristics of materials
used for resistance thermometers

(CO2)
Linear Approximation
• It means that an equation for a straight
line which approximates the resistance
versus temperature curve over a
specified span.
• The equation of this straight line is the
linear approximation of the curve from
θ1°C and θ2°C.
R  R0 [1  1 ]
The equation of straight line is:
with θ1<θ0<θ2
Where Rθ = approximate resistance at θ°C; Fig (a) : A straight line
representing an approximate
Rθ0 = approximate resistance at θ0°C;Ω
 0 relationship between Resistance
θ = θ- θ0 = change in temperature;°C and temperature
= resistance temperature
12/14/2021 Neha Jaincoefficient
S&A atUnit :2 61
(CO2)
The reason for choosing 0 as the fractional slope of the resistance
temperature curve is that this same constant be used for conductors having
the same material with different dimensions.
The value of 0 can be found from the value of resistance and
temperatures as shown in fig .
In general, 1
 0  ( slopeat 0 )
R0
1  R2  R1 
  
R0  
 2 1  

(CO2)
Quadratic Approximation
• A quadratic approximation of the resistance temperature curve is more
accurate representation of the curve over a limited range of
temperature.
• The quadratic approximation relationship includes both a linear term
and an additional term which varies as the square of the difference in
temperature.
The approximation is written as
R  R0 [1  1   2 ( ) 2 ]

Where 1 = linear fractional change in resistance; /°C
 2 = quadratic fractional change in resistance; /(°C)2

(CO2)
Metals used for Resistance Thermometers
Metals Resistance Temperature Range Melting
Temperature °C Point °C
coefficient/°C
Min Max
Platinum .0039 -200 850 1773

Copper .0038 -200 260 1083
Nickel .0067 -90 300 1435
Tungsten .0048 -200 1000 3370

(CO2)
Disadvantages of RTD
• The contact resistance of the adjustable standard resistor may be large
enough to produce an error when measuring the change in resistance
of thermometer.
• The leads from the thermometer to the bridge may introduce an error
due to change of their resistance produce temperature changes.
• The current through the thermometer produces a heating effect equal
to the product of the current squared and the resistance of the
thermometer.
To remove these disadvantages , slight modifications are required
in Wheatstone bridge such as double slide wire bridge (three lead
method and four lead method).

(CO2)
Applications
Preffered Application Range: -250°C to 1000°C
Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
 Food Processing
 Stoves and grills
 Textile production
 Plastics processing
 Petrochemical processing
 Micro electronics
 Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
 Exhaust gas temperature measurement

(CO2)
Numericals:
1. Find the linear approximation
between 30°C and 60°C using the
resistance temperature curve as
shown in fig (a) .
2. Use the following values of the
resistance versus temperature for
an RTD to find the linear and
quadratic approximations of
resistance between 100°C and
130°C about a mean temperature
of 115°C.

Daily Quiz
 Resistance temperature detector is ___________
a) a electrical transducer
b) a mechanical transducer
c) a chemical transducer
d) a physical transducer
 . Relation between temperature and resistance of a conductor is
________
a) Rt = Rref [1+t]
b) Rt = Rref [1+α∆t]
c) Rt = Rref [1-αt]
d) Rt = Rref [1-t]
 Most metallic conductors have a ________ temperature coefficient
of resistance
 In a temperature sensing element ,value of α is required to
________
Concept of Thermal Imaging(CO2)
Thermal imaging is a method of using infrared radiation and thermal
energy to gather information about objects, in order to formulate images
of them, even in low visibility environments. It’s a type of technology
that has built up a broad range of uses over the years. In particular, it’s
an effective form of night-vision technology, with the capability to work
in the total absence of any light (since it doesn’t rely on visible light),
and can even work in smoke, fog, smog and haze.
Thermal imaging is the technique of using the heat given off by an
object to produce an image of it or to locate it. It is a method of
improving visibility of objects in dark environment by detecting the
objects IR radiations and creating image based on the information.
 First developed for military purposes in the late 1950s and 1960s by
Texas Instruments, Hughes Aircraft and Honeywell.
 It works in environments without any ambient light and can penetrate
obscurants such as smoke, fog and haze.

Normally grey scale in nature: black objects are cold, white objects are
hot (heat) and the depth of grey indicates variations between the two.
However, newer models of thermal imaging cameras actually add colour
to the images they produce, in order to help users better identify distinct
objects more clearly – using colours such as orange, blue, yellow, red and
purple.
There are 3 more commonly night vision based methods:
1. Thermal imaging
2. Near IR illumination
3. Low light imaging
Unlike, the other two methods, thermal imaging work in an environment
without sufficient light.

Object
(temp./ heat) Thermal Create Thermal Images
Camera
Emit IR Radiations
All objects emit infrared radiations(heat) as a function of their

temperature. The infrared radiations(heat) emitted by an object
called heat signature. In general, the hotter end object is, the more
radiations it emits.

A thermal camera is essentially a heat sensor that is capable of

detecting minor differences in temperature. The device collect the
IR radiations from objects in the scene and create an electronic
image based on the information about the temp. differences. The
body temperature of all the objects is different, therefore, they will
appear distinct in a thermal image.

Advantages
 Non-invasive and non-destructive hence can be used to survey whilst
the plant and equipment is running, in production and on load.
 Produces fast, accurate and immediate temperature measurement and
helps in fault detection.
 Cameras are easy to install and surveys can be performed at a
convenient time.
 Is capable of catching moving targets in real time and in low light
conditions.
 Can be used to measure or observe subjects in areas inaccessible or
hazardous for other methods.
 Can help in identifying air leakages, documenting irregular heat
dispersion and identifying possible irregularities in insulation.
 Cameras can passively see all objects, regardless of ambient light.

Applications
Tracing the origins of thermal imaging, it’s believed to have its
beginnings in the Korean War, being used for military purposes such as
scouting and night combat missions. Since then, its uses have expanded
far and wide, across different disciplines and for a variety of practical
applications.
Electrical maintenance uses for
thermal imaging are extensive. For
example, power line technicians use
thermal imaging to locate and pinpoint
joints and parts that are at risk of
overheating as they’re already emitting
more heat than the stronger sections.
They can also help spot
loose connections or devices that are
starting to fail.

Applications
Plumbers use thermal imagers

to inspect sites of possible leaks,
mainly through walls and pipes.
Since the devices can be used at
a distance, they’re ideal for
finding potential problems in
equipment that is either hard to
reach or might otherwise pose
safety issues to workers.

Mechanical and building construction

technicians who work with thermal
insulation use imaging to quickly identify
leaks, which is important to maintain
efficient temperature regulation in a
building. At a glance, they can analyse a
building’s structure and spot faults. Heat
loss from walls, doors and windows are
common thermal performance issues that
are easily picked up by a thermal imager.

Animal and Pest management is a

field which has a surprising number of
uses for thermal imagers. They can
help spot pests or animals in dark roof
areas without having to climb up into
them, and they can detect potential
termite activity. Also, they’re
commonly used to more easily conduct
wildlife surveys in a totally non-
invasive, non-intrusive manner.

Transport navigation gets significant

benefits from thermal imaging,
particularly when travelling at night.
For example, maritime navigation uses
it for clearly seeing other vessels,
people and obstructions during the
night while out at sea. In recent years,
cars have begun incorporating infrared
cameras to alert drivers of people or
animals beyond streetlights or the
reach of their headlights.

Healthcare and medicine also have practical

uses, such as to spot fevers and temperature
anomalies. This has proven to be especially
important in airports where these thermal
imaging cameras can quickly and accurately
scan all incoming or outgoing passengers for
higher temperatures, which was crucial during
recent outbreaks of diseases like SARS and
Ebola. Additionally, thermal imagers have been
proven to help diagnose a range of disorders
associated with the neck, back and limbs, as
well as circulatory problems.

Fire-fighters use thermal imaging to help them see

through smoke, particularly in rescue missions when
they’re searching for people in an otherwise obscured
and dangerous environment. They also use thermal
cameras for rapid identification of spot fires, so they can
intervene before they spread.
Police and law enforcement agencies incorporate
thermal imagers into their surveillance equipment, used
for locating suspects especially at night, as well as to
investigate crime scenes and also for search and rescue
operations. They’re superior to night-vision devices, as
they don’t require any ambient light and are unaffected
by bright lights, which is essential for tactical missions.

Science and research are undoubtedly sectors that draw significant

benefits from using thermal imagers, for accurate and precise
visualisations of heat patterns.
Other applications which use a thermal imaging camera include
heating, ventilation and air conditioning installations, mould detection,
quality assurance in processes such as glass manufacturing and many
more.
Fun uses are available as well! There are a plethora of enjoyable,
hobby-related things you can do with a handheld thermal imager, from
finding birds and other fauna when out on hikes, to comparing relative
temperatures of drinks, to even picking out cooler spots in a room!

Daily Quiz
 Which of the following produce em radiation in IR region?
a) Body with negative temperature
b) Body with temperature less than 1000C
c) Body with temperature less than 6000C
d) Body with temperature less than 10000C
 Energy of emitted radiation from a body increases with
______________
a) Increase in temperature
b) Decrease in temperature
c) No relation with temperature
d) Net energy cannot be changed
 Which of the following sensor have a large response time?
a) Thermopile b) Pyroelectric sensor
c) Lead sulphide sensor d) Silicon sensor

Weekly Assignment
 What you mean by Pt-100? Why platinum is most

preferred in RTD & write its limitation?
 Explain the working principle of J type and K

type thermocouple?
 Explain reference junction compensation in

thermocouple. Why it is necessary?

Recap:
Prerequisite:
• Basic Electronics
• Basics of Electromagnetism.
• Basics of Electromechanical system.

Measurement of position using Hall effect
sensors(CO2)
Hall Effect:
The Hall effect was discovered by Dr. Edwin Hall in 1879.
Principle of Hall effect:
When a current-carrying conductor is placed into a magnetic field, a
voltage will be generated perpendicular to both the current and the field.
This principle is known as the Hall effect.
It shows a thin sheet of
semiconducting material (Hall
element) through which a current is
passed. The output connections are
perpendicular to the direction of
current. When no magnetic field is
present (Figure 1), current
Figure 1. Hall effect principle, no magnetic
distribution is uniform and no field
potential difference is seen across
the output.
sensors(CO2)
When a perpendicular magnetic field
is present, a Lorentz force is exerted
on the current. This force disturbs the
current distribution, resulting in a
potential difference (voltage) across
the output. This voltage is the Hall
voltage (VH).
The interaction of the magnetic field
and the current is shown in equation Figure 2. Hall effect principle, magnetic
form as equation. field present
The Hall voltage is proportional to the vector cross product of the current
(I) and the magnetic field (B). It is on the order of 7 micro v/Vs/gauss in
silicon and thus requires amplification for practical applications.

sensors(CO2)
Basic Hall Effect Sensor: The Hall element is the basic magnetic field
sensor. It requires signal conditioning to make the output usable for most
applications. The signal conditioning electronics needed are an amplifier
stage and temperature compensation. Voltage regulation is needed when
operating from an unregulated supply.
Basic Hall Effect Sensor

sensors(CO2)
If the Hall voltage is measured when no magneticfield is present, the output
is zero (see Figure 1). However, if voltage at each output terminal is
measured with respect to ground, a non-zero voltage will appear. This is the
Common Mode Voltage (CMV). This output Hall Voltage is:
Where:
VH is the Hall Voltage in volts
RH is the Hall Effect co-efficient
I is the current flow through the sensor
in amps
t is the thickness of the sensor in mm
B is the Magnetic Flux density in Tesla
There are two basic types of digital Hall effect
sensor, Bipolar and Unipolar. Bipolar sensors require a positive magnetic
field (south pole) to operate them and a negative field (north pole) to release
them while unipolar sensors require only a single magnetic south pole to
both operate and release them as they move in and out of the magnetic field.
sensors(CO2)
Positional Detector Hall Effect Sensor: This
head-on positional detector will be “OFF” when
there is no magnetic field present, (0 gauss). When
the permanent magnets south pole (positive gauss)
is moved perpendicular towards the active area of
the Hall effect sensor the device turns “ON” and
lights the LED. Once switched “ON” the Hall effect
sensor stays “ON”.
To turn the device and therefore the LED “OFF”
the magnetic field must be reduced to below the
release point for unipolar sensors or exposed to a
magnetic north pole (negative gauss) for bipolar
sensors. The LED can be replaced with a larger
power transistor if the output of the Hall Effect
Sensor is required to switch larger current loads.

sensors(CO2)
Applications of Hall Effect Sensor
The applications of Hall-effect sensors are as follows:
• When combined with threshold detection they act as a switch.
• These are used in ultra-high-reliability applications such as keyboards.
• Hall Effect sensors are used to time the speed of wheels and shafts.
• These are used to detect the position of permanent magnet in brushless
electric DC motors.
• Hall Effect sensors are embedded in digital electronic devices along with
linear transducers.
• Sensing the presence of the magnetic field in industrial applications.
• Used in smartphone to check whether the flip cover accessory is closed.
• For contactless measurement of DC current in current transformers, Hall
Effect sensor is used.
• This is used as a sensor to detect the fuel levels in automobiles.

sensors(CO2)
Q. A Hall effect transducer is used for the measurement of magnetic
field of 0.5 Wb/m^2. The 2 mm thick slab is made of Bismuth for
which the Hall coefficient is -1*10^-6 (Vm/A-wb/m^2) and current
is 3mA. Find VH?
B = 0.5 Wb/m^2
t = 2mm
RH = -1*10^-6 (Vm/A-wb/m^2)
I = 3mA
VH = -0.75 * 10^-6 V

Proximity sensors: Inductive & Capacitive
(CO2)
Proximity Sensor:
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the

presence of nearby objects without any physical
contact. A proximity sensor often emits an
electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic
radiation (IR), and looks for change in field.
The maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined “nominal
range”. Some sensors have adjustments of the nominal range.
 Proximity sensors are commonly used on smartphones to detect (and
skip) accidental touchscreen taps when held to the ear during a call.
 They are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure the
vibration in distance between a shaft and its support bearing. This is
common in large steam turbines, compressors, and motors that use
sleeve-type bearings.
(CO2)
Proximity Sensors- Applications
• Detects Aluminium Components
• Inspects High speed Table Movement
• Detects Bottle Caps
• Detects Aluminium Caps
• Detects the height of liquid in a Pipe
• Detects Instruction Sheets in Paper Boxes

(CO2)
Types of Proximity Sensor:
 Inductive Proximity Sensor

 Capacitive Proximity Sensor
 Photoelectric Proximity Sensor
 Magnetic Proximity Sensor
Inductive Proximity Sensor: It is an electronic proximity sensor, which
detects metallic objects without touching them. (sensing range: .5 to 40 mm)

(CO2)
 The coil of the tank inductor is wound
around a ferrite core
 An electromagnetic field continually
expands and contracts around the coil
 Shape of the core causes the flux lines to
bundle together
Sensor Head Unshielded sensor, which directs the flux lines
to the front and side the sensor head.
 Consists of closed-loop op-amp
configuration
 One branch of the tank contains a
capacitor and the other branch an inductor
 Once power applied, resonance develops
in the tank and oscillators will produce a
frequency (100 Hz to 1MHz). Oscillator

(CO2)
 Output of the oscillator connected to a Schmitt
trigger input
 Produces two voltages
 If the oscillator decreases to certain amplitude, it
causes the trigger output to quickly to a low
Evaluation Unit voltage level
 The function of the output is to drive a load ON

or OFF.
Output Stage
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f15uUSdVkKQ
(CO2)
• Whenever a metal object enters this magnetic field, the moving flux
lines induce small EDDY current on the object surface.
EDDY Current:
• Eddy current are electric currents induced within conductors by a
changing magnetic field in the conductor.
• These circulating eddies of current have inductance and thus induce
magnetic fields.
 Power is needed to make these current flow, energy is drained from
the oscillator circuit, causing its amplitude to decrease.
 A trigger circuit inside the sensor detects the change in amplitude and
cause the sensor output to light on (switch off).
 When the metal target moves out of the magnetic field, the oscillator
regenerates and the sensor output blinks the light back to its normal
OFF state (switch on).

(CO2)
Advantages of inductive proximity sensors
• Contactless detection
• Environment adaptability; resistant to common conditions seen in
industrial areas such as dust and dirt
• Capable and versatile in metal sensing
• Considerably cheap when it comes to price
• No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
Disadvantages of inductive proximity sensors
• Lack in detection range, averaging a max range of up to 40mm
• Can only detect metal objects
• Performance can be affected by external conditions;
:extreme temperatures ,cutting fluids or chemicals
Common applications:
Industrial usages:Production automation machines that count products,
product transfers
Security usages:Detection of metal objects, armoury, land mines, etc.
(CO2)
Capacitive Proximity Sensor: Capacitive proximity sensors are
contactless sensors that detect both metallic and non-metallic objects,
including liquid, powders, and granular. It operates by detecting a
change in capacitance.
Similarly to inductive sensors, it consists of an oscillator, Schmitt
trigger and output switching circuit.

(CO2)
The only difference is it comprises of 2 charging plates (1 internal, 1
external) for capacitor:
 Internal plate connected to the oscillator
 External plate (sensor electrodes) used as the sensing surface
How do capacitive proximity sensors work?

1. Capacitive proximity sensor produces an electrostatic field
2. When an object (conductive/non-conductive) approaches the sensing
area, the capacitance of both plates increases, resulting in oscillator
amplitude gain
3.The resulted amplitude gain triggers sensor output switch
Note: Capacitive sensors only oscillate when the target object is present
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 100

(CO2)
Advantages of Capacitive proximity sensors
• Contactless detection
• A wide array of materials able to be detected
• Able to detect objects through non-metallic walls with its wide
sensitivity band
• Well-suited to be used in an industrial environment
• Contains potentiometer that allows users to adjust sensor sensitivity,
such that only wanted objects will be sensed
• No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
Disadvantages of Capacitive proximity sensors

• Relative low range, though incremental increase from inductive
sensors
• Higher price as compared to inductive sensors
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 101

(CO2)
Common applications:
• Industrial usages
• Production automation machines that count products, product
transfers
• Filling processes, pipelines, inks, etc.
• Fluid level, composition, and pressure
• Moisture control
• Non-invasive content detection
• Touch applications
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 102

(CO2)
Proximity Sensor as accelerometer and vibration sensor:
In the diagram, the eddy current is developed in the moving conductor

when it intersect a magnetic field or vice –versa.
The eddy current developed in the conductor generates its own magnetic
field that oppose the effect of existed magnetic field. If the applied
magnetic field is stronger, then more eddy current will be developed in
the conductor.
The converse is also true. If the relative velocity of motion increases,

then high eddy currents will be induced which, in turn, more opposing
the magnetic field and that will be sensed by the eddy current probes.
On the basis of the strength of the opposite magnetic field, the eddy
current probes determine Neha
12/14/2021
the Jain
distance
S&A
between
Unit :2
the probe and the target.
103
(CO2)
Similarly, it can also determine the vibration rate of the target. If more
vibrations occurs in the target then more magnetic field will be oppose
the original magnetic field and then strength of the original magnetic
field will be decrease. Therefore the proximity sensor can be used to
measure the both acceleration and vibration.
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 104

Daily Quiz
 The following is (are) type(s) of Hall Effect sensors.
a) Linear Hall Effect sensor
b) Threshold Hall Effect sensor
c) (c) Both (A) and (B)
d) None of the above
 Hall Effect sensors are used in
a) Flow meter
b) Fuel level indicator
c) Both (A) and (B)
d) None of the above
 Following is (are) true for Hall Effect sensors.

(A) They can operate as switches of high frequency
(B) They cost less than electromechanical switches
(C) They are free from contact bounce problem
(D) All of the above
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 105

Weekly Assignment
 Explain Inductive and Capacitive type proximity

sensor with the suitable application.
 Explain the concept of Hall Effect sensor.
 Briefly discuss Proximity Sensor and

accelerometer .
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 106

Recap:
Prerequisite:
• Basic Knowledge of Ultrasonic wave.
• Doppler Effect
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 107

Flow Sensors(CO2)
A flow meter (or flow sensor) mainly operate on the principle of flow rate
placing an obstruction in the path of fluid causing a change in fluid
pressure which is dependent upon the rate of flow. Thus, by measuring the
difference in pressure before and after the obstruction by means of
differential pressure sensor, the rate of flow may be determined.
Ultrasonic Flow Sensor (Flow Meter)
The term Ultrasonic is used to describe pressure waves at frequencies

higher than the human ears can detect.
An ultrasonic flow meter is a meter that measures the flow by detecting
the action of fluid flow on an ultrasonic beam (or ultrasonic pulse).
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 108

Flow Sensors(CO2)
Features:
 Easy to carry;
 Low maintenance;
 Can only be used to measure cleaning liquids;
 Not subject to pipe diameter restrictions;
 No flow obstruction measurement, no additional pressure loss.
Two major sub-types of ultrasonic flow meters exist: Doppler and

transit-time.
Both types of ultrasonic flow meter work by transmitting a high-
frequency sound wave into the fluid stream and analyzing the received
pulse.
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 109

Flow Sensors(CO2)
Transit-time ultrasonic flow meters
Construction:- An ultrasonic flow meter for flow rate consists of two
piezoelectric crystals in the liquid or gas separated by a distance. One of
crystal acts as a transmitter and other as a receiver. They are either
Figure shows a system which can be used external to a pipe carrying a
liquid. An acoustic signal (ultrasonic) is transmitted from transmitter to
receiver through the pipe. This can be either in the direction of flow
(downstream) or against the direction of flow (upstream). The time
(transit) that the signal requires to arrive at the receiver is then measured.
According to physical principles, the signal sent against the direction of
flow requires longer to return than the signal in the direction of flow.
The difference in the transit time is directly proportional to the velocity of
flow.
v ≈ Δt
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 110

Flow Sensors(CO2)
v ≈ Δt
v = k Δ t
Where k is a constant.
Flow rate is thus, Q = v . A
(v = flow velocity , Δt = transit time difference between the signal in the
direction of flow and against the direction of flow ,Q = volumetric flow , A
= pipe cross-sectional area)
Working: The transmitter emits an ultrasonic pulse which is received at the

receiver a Δt time later.
The transit time in the direction of flow,

Δt1 = d/(c+v) ……….(1)
And their phase shift , Δϕ1 = w Δt1 = 2πf (d/(c+v) ) ……….(2)
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 111

Flow Sensors(CO2)
when the signal is travelling in the opposite direction against the flow,
then the transit time,
Δt2 = d/(c-v) ……….(3)
And their phase shift, Δϕ2 = w Δt2 = 2πf (d/(c-v) ) ……….(4)
Velocity can, therefore, be determined by either measuring the transit time

or the phase shift.As in above formulae, the velocity of flow is inversely
proportional to the time measure.So, make the velocity of flow directly
proportional to the time, following scheme is used.
In this scheme, a commutating switch is used for reversing the functions

of transmitter and receiver periodically.
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 112

Flow Sensors(CO2)
Ultrasonic pulses traveling in the direction of the flow, travel path
between transducers in a shorter period of time than pulses traveling
against the flow.
So, the difference in transit time is:
Δt =Δt2 - Δt1 = {d/(c-v)}- {d/(c+v)}= 2dv/(c2 –
v2)
This is measured by a phase sensitive detector driven synchronously with
the commutator. Usually c>>>>>>v
Therefore, Δt = 2dv/(c2 )
Hence, time Δt is linearly proportional to the flow velocity v.

But This system, though gives a linear relationship, is subjected to an error
on account of uncertainty of the value of c.
To overcome this error due to uncertainty of c, a system based on
frequency may be evolved.
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 113

Flow Sensors(CO2)
Two self excited oscillating systems are created because of using the
received pulses to trigger the transmitted pulses in feedback arrangement.
The pulse repetition frequency in forward propagating loop is (1/ Δt1)
while that in the backward propagating loop is (1/ Δt2).
Δt1 = {d/(c+vcosθ)} Δf1 = (1/ Δt1) = {(c+vcosθ)/d}

Δt2 = {d/(c-vcosθ)} Δf2 = (1/ Δt2) = {(c-vcosθ)/d}
Hence, difference in frequency, Δf =Δf1 –Δf2 = (2v cos θ)/d
This equation shows that output is independent of c and is,therefore, not

subjected to the errors on account of uncertainty of the value of c.
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 114

Flow Sensors(CO2)
Advantages
 There is no obstruction to the flow.

 They are insensitive to the variations in viscosity, density and
temperature.
 Linear relationship between input and output.
 Good accuracy
 Fast response
 Small in size
 Range : 0 to 80 km/h for air with accuracy of ±.5%.
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 115

Flow Sensors(CO2)
Disadvantages
 Complex
 High cost
 Only used for clear water or distilled water liquids.
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 116

Daily Quiz
 What is the flow rate of a liquid flowing through a cylindrical
pipe of cross section area 0.5m2 and velocity of the liquid is
0.5m/s?
a) 0.5 b) 0.75
c) 0.25 d) 1
 What is the flow rate of a liquid flowing through a cylindrical
pipe of radius 0.2 m and velocity of the liquid is 0.6m/s?
a) 0.5
b) 0.07536
c) 0.0157
d) 0.0628
 What is the SI unit of volumetric flow rate?
a) m2/s
b) m3/s
c) m/s
d) m3/s2
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 117

Flow Sensors(CO2)
Ultrasonic Doppler Flow meter
Doppler flow meters exploit the Doppler effect, which is the shifting of
frequency resulting from waves emitted by or reflected by a moving
object. It can be experienced with LASER also.
Doppler Effect:-
1.Suppose, a stationary source of sound is emitting a sound of a certain
frequency. For a listener who is moving away from the source of sound,
the pitch (frequency) is lower than when he is at rest position. Conversely,
the frequency will be higher if the listener comes towards the source of
sound.
2. A similar phenomenon results If a listen is stationary and source of
sound is moving.
The frequency shift observed in this phenomenon is related to the relative
velocity of the listener and the source.
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
Doppler effect ultrasonic flow meter is used to measure the flow of the
liquid which have the air bubbles particles as reference particles or some
discontinuities.
Construction:-
It consists of a hollow pipe which carrying the liquid in it, piezoelectric
transmitter and receiver. This transmitter is an Ultrasonic transducer
bonded to the pipe wall to transmit an ultrasonic signal into the flow.
Working:-
Continuous wave ultrasonic signal of 10MHz frequency is generated by a
piezoelectric crystal oscillator. This signal is scattered by moving
suspended particles that produces a signal of changed frequency and this
signal is detected by the receiver. It can be shown that frequency shift is
directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid flow, which, in turn, is
proportional to the volume flow rate of the liquid.
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
The flow meter measures the frequency shift, which is linearly proportional
to the flow rate. This value is multiplied by the internal diameter of the pipe
to derive volumetric flow as shown below:
Δf = 2fT sinθ • VF/VS
VF = (Δf/2 fT ) .( VS / sinθ) Where:
VT = Sonic velocity of transmitter
material
By Snell’s Law (the law of refraction): θT = Angle of transmitter beam
K = Senstiviy factor
sinθT/VT = sinθ/VS VF = Flow velocity
Δf = Doppler frequency shift
VF = Δf/2fT • VT/sinθT = KΔf VS = Sonic velocity of fluid
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Unit :2 frequency 120
Flow Sensors(CO2)
VF = K. Δf
Where, K= VT/2fT sinθT
Volumetric flow rate = K • VF • D2
Where:
K = Constant
D = Inner diameter of the pipe
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
Advantages
 Ultrasonic meters are made up of no moving parts.
 They experience no pressure loss.
 They endow with maintenance-free operation. It is a key
advantage as compared to conventional mechanical meters
such as positive displacement meters, turbines etc.
 Furthermore, Ultrasonic flow meters are consistently more
accurate and reliable than a lot of other metering systems.
 Low power consumption
 It is used where other meter don’t work. This might be liquid
slurries aerated liquids with some small or large amount on
suspended solids.
 Corrosion resistant
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
Disadvantages
 Sound beam must traverse a representative cross section,
therefore flow profile dependent. Long inlet and outlet
sections required
 Doppler meters only for slight contamination or few gas
bubbles.
 Unsuitable for heavily contaminated liquids
 High dependent on physical properties of the fluid like sonic
conductivity, particle density and flow profile.
 Non- uniformity of particle distribution may result in a in
correctly computed mean velocity. So accuracy is also
affected.
 Meter is also sensitive to changes in density and
temperature.
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
Applications
 Ultrasonic flow meters are perfect for wastewater
applications or any other dirty liquid which is conductive or
water based.
 Ultrasonic flow meters normally does not work with
distilled water or drinking water. Aerations would be
needed in the clean liquid applications.
 Ultrasonic flow meters are also best suited for applications
where low pressure drop, chemical compatibility, and low
maintenance are involved.
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
Laser Doppler Anemometer or Laser Flow meter
Doppler effect is a method for measuring the shifting of frequency
resulting from waves emitted by or reflected by a moving object from
which velocity of the object can be measured.
When a narrow laser beam is focused on an object, the beam will be

reflected back to source. But if object is moving, the frequency of the
signal received back will differ from that of the transmitted signal. This
difference in frequency shift (Doppler shift) becomes a measure of
velocity of the object.
LDA is used to measure the flow (especially, high frequency turbulence

fluctuations). This device can measure the velocity of the flow precisely
and they do not disturb the flow during the measurement process.
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
Laser Doppler Anemometer or Laser Flow meter
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
Construction:
It consists of a laser source which emitted the argon beam or He-Ne beam,
a beam splitter that splits the laser beam into two equal intensity beams,
lens L1 that is used to focus the splitted beams at the intersection point of
the test section, lens L2 that is used to collect all the scattered light from
the intersection point of the test section and PMT (Photomultiplier Tube).
Working:
The laser source sends a beam that is splitted by a beam splitter into
two beam.
These parallel beams are focused by the Lens L1 such that they
intersect at a point in the test section where flow with particles exists. In
the region of intersection, interference are formed.
The particles (carried along with the flow) that pass through the
intersection of the beams scatter the light from the beams.
The scattered light experiences a Doppler shift in frequency that is
directly proportional to the flow velocity.
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
The light is collected by the photomultiplier tube through the Lens L2.
The device is constructed such that the direct and scattered beams travel
in the same optical path. So that interference will be observed at the PMT
that is proportional to the frequency shift. This shift then gives an
indication of flow velocity. A signal processor is used to retrieve the
velocity data from the PMT.
Advantages:
1. Does not disturb the flow during the measurement.
2. Measure the velocity directly.
3. Highly precise
4. Can be used to measure the flow of gases and liquids both.
5. It can be used over a wide range of flow measurement with high
resolution in time and good precision.
6. Immune to environmental effects with no pressure loss or flow
disturbance.
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
Disadvantages:
1. Low sensitivity compared to other thermo anemometer.
2. At higher concentration of incident light, the readings get very much
dispersed with high noise.
3. Require transparent channels.
4. Can not used on clean flows.
Applications:
5. Measurement of velocity and turbulences in wind tunnels.
6. Medical: Blood flow measurement
7. Flow Research
4. Automation
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
Electromagnetic Flow Meter
Construction:
It consists of a pair of insulated platinum or stainless steel electrodes on
the opposite sides of non- conducting, non magnetic pipe carrying the
fluid whose flow is to be measured and these electrodes are
perpendicular to both magnetic field as well as pipe axis.
The pipe is surrounded by the electromagnetic field which produces a
magnetic field and Pipe is protected by a glass lining.
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
Working: It works on the principle of Farady’s law of electromagnetic
induction.
The arrangement is analogous to a conductor moving across a magnetic
field. Therefore, voltage is induced across the electrodes.
The emf can be expressed as :
E=Blv
Where, B= magnetic field strength, l= length of the conductor v= velocity
of the liquid.
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
The pipe carrying liquid in the gap of E-shape iron core. A coil is
wound on the core. When coil is excited, a magnetic field is produced.
The pipe is placed such that liquid flow is in perpendicular direction to
the magnetic field.
Thus conductor (liquid in motion) cuts the magnetic field. Hence emf is
induced in the liquid. This emf is calculated through the electrodes by
using the voltmeter.
This emf is proportional to the flow rate of the liquid.
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Flow Sensors(CO2)
Advantages:
1. No obstruction in the flow of liquid.
2. Flow in reverse direction can also be measured.
3. Wide linear range
4. No calibration is required if different type of liquid is measured using
same arrangement.
5. Output is unaffected by change its characteristics of liquid such as
viscosity, temperature and pressure etc.
Disadvantages:
6. Operating cost is high.
7. Conductivity of the liquid should be less than 10 micro-ohm/meter.
Applications:
It is particularly suitable for the flow measurements of slurries,
sludge and any electrically conducting liquid.
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Weekly Assignment
 Explain Electromagnetic Flow Meter.
 Explain doppler flow meter with mathematical

expression.
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of

flow meter sensors .
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Prerequisite and Recap(CO2)
Recap:
Prerequisite:
• Basic Knowledge of Ultrasonic wave.
• Capacitance & its parameters.
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Level Sensors(CO2)
 A wide range of level sensor measurement systems are made

available for addressing the various parameters such as a wide
range of applications, high-accuracy needs, and system
installation requirements and practices. Measurement
technologies are made available in different versions to
address a wide range of measurement needs, or to address a
speciﬁc application.
 Liquid level sensors are termed as the sensors used for

detecting liquid levels or interfaces between liquids such as
water and oil or solids and liquids. These sensors can also be
defined as transducers or as integrated systems with
instrumentation and control capabilities. This type of liquid
level sensor is one of the most important sensors and plays a
vital role in variety of industrial and consumer applications.
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Level Sensors(CO2)
Industrial applications include liquid-level sensing in

transport tanks, storage tanks and water treatment tanks,
and also in the petrochemical industries for sensing liquids
such as petrol, diesel and other fuels. Liquid level
measurement is significant in household applications
including electronic devices such as, water dispensers,
water evaporators, steamers, monitoring system of boilers,
heating systems, washing machines, steam irons, juice
squeezers, automated-coffee machines, etc. Level sensors
are designed for specific applications compared to general
applications.
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Level Sensors(CO2)
Classification of Level Sensor Measuring Systems
The family of level Sensor measurement systems is

classified into different categories such as:
• Liquids or Solids Level Measurement

• Point or Continuous Level Measurement
• Electromagnetic or Electromechanical Level Measurement
• Contacting or Non-Contacting Level Measurement
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Level Sensors(CO2)
Liquid Level Switch Measurement and Detection
Systems
• Point level measurement sensors are used for the purpose of

marking a single liquid height or for presetting a level
condition. Usually, this sensor works as a high alarm that
measures the overflow conditions in tanks through liquid
level sensors, or works as a marker to note down the low
alarm conditions. The different types of sensors are given
below:
Float Sensor
Capacitance Sensors
Conductivity Probes
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Level Sensors(CO2)
Level Detection and Measurement by Using Capacitance

Sensor
Capacitance level sensors are made available for wide range of

solids, aqueous, organic liquids and slurries. The capacitive sensors
are designed to sense material with dielectric constants as low as
1.1 for coke and fly ash, and as high as 88 for water or other liquids.
There are three methods:
1. Variable Area Method

2. Capacitance Voltage Divider Method
3. Variable Dielectric Constant Method
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Level Sensors(CO2)
1. Variable Area Method: It is used for the
measurement of the levels of both solids and liquids.
The electrical conducting container containing the
materials is used as a one plate of capacitor. The
other plate is a metal rod completely covered by
insulating material inside the container. The
insulating material acts as the dielectric medium and
capacitance varies linearly with the height of the
material.
The relationship is given by:
C = 2πεh / loge(d2/d1) Farad
Where, ε= permittivity of the insulator, h = height of

material, d1 and d2 = diameter of metal rod and
insulator.
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Level Sensors(CO2)
2. Capacitive Voltage Divider Method:
In case, conductivity of liquid is high, its surface can be used as one
electrode of the capacitor. The other electrode is a fixed reference plate to
the surface of the liquid. This uses an auxiliary electrode P1 placed at a
fixed distance above the reference electrode P2. The two electrodes P1
and P2 are electrically insulated from each other. An A.C. voltage is
applied between the liquid and the electrode P1.
Potential of electrode P2 with respect to the earth
E0 = Ei C1/(C1+C2)
Capacitance C2 is inversely
proportional to the distance between
the liquid surface and P2. Thus
output voltage decreases with rise of
liquid level and therefore, the
relationship between them is non-
linear.
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Level Sensors(CO2)
3. Variable Dielectric Constant Method:
The principle of capacitive level measurement is
based on the change of capacitance.
Figure shows an insulated metal electrode
firmly fixed near and parallel to the metal wall
of the tank.
1. If liquid is non conductive, the electrode and
tank wall form the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor with the liquid in between them acting
as a dielectric.
2. If the liquid is conductive, the rod and the
liquid form the plates of the capacitor and
insulation between them is the dielectric.
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Level Sensors(CO2)
A simple capacitor consists of two electrode plates separated by a small
thickness of an insulator such as solid, fluid, gas, or vacuum.
• The Value of C depends on dielectric constant used, area of the plate and
also on the distance between the plates.
C=E(KA/d)
(Where: C = Capacitance in Pico farads (pF) E = a constant known as the absolute
permittivity of free space K = Relative dielectric constant of the insulating material A =
Effective area of the conductors d = Distance between the conductors.)
• This change in capacitance can be measured by using an AC Bridge.
If the tank is not made of metal, then two parallel
insulated rods kept a fixed distance apart are used
as shown in figure.
The two rods act as a two plates of the capacitor.
The capacitance depends on the liquid level. An
empty tank has low capacitance while a filled
tank has higher capacitance.
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Level Sensors(CO2)
 The main advantages of these capacitance systems

include easy installation, broad application range, good
accuracy suitable for variety of applications and highly
recognized and well -proven technology.
 The disadvantages include sensitivity to changes in the

measurable properties such as dielectric constant and
conductivity which creates an issue; furthermore, it is an
intrusive system.
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Level Sensors(CO2)
Level Detection and Measurement by Using Ultrasonic Sensor
Ultrasonic level instruments works on the basic time-of-flight principle

which states that sending a sound wave from a piezo electric transducer
to the contents of the vessel, which may contain liquid, solid or slurries
level.
This liquid level sensor comprises two elements such as an associated
electronic transceiver and a transducer with relatively high efficiency. In
case of a liquid level controller, the fluid level can be determined by
measuring the trip time difference between a transmitted ultrasonic
pulse and a reflected echo.
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Level Sensors(CO2)
Level Detection and Measurement by Using
Ultrasonic Sensor
The frequency range for
ultrasonic methods varies
from a range of 15-200 kHz
for transmitting and receiving
ultrasonic waves. The lower
frequency instruments are
used for the measurement of
difficult applications such as
longer distances and solid-
level measurements, and the
instruments with higher
frequency are used for shorter
liquid level measurements.
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Level Sensors(CO2)
Construction and Working:
An ultrasonic transmitter and receiver can be mounted on the top of the
tank for measurement of level of either solids or liquids as shown in
figure.
The ultrasonic beam is projected downwards by the transmitter and
reflected back by the surface of the solid or liquid contained in the tank.
The beam is received by the receiver. The time taken by the beam is a
measure of the distance travelled by the beam. Therefore, t is the time
between transmitting and receiving the pulse. A pressure pulse is
proportional to the distance h’ between the ultrasonic set and surface of
the tank.
t ∝ h’ ∝ (H-h)
Since distance between ultrasonic set and the bottom of the tank is fixed.
Time t is measure of level of h’
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Level Sensors(CO2)
Advantages:
They are not in direct contact with the product.
 the level measurement is done without involving any
physical contact.
 They do not have any moving parts.
Disadvantages:
 These types of sensor are not suitable for higher pressures in
a vacuum .
temperature limits of up to 170 degree centigrade
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Daily Quiz
 The most common application of float system is
A. To monitor the fuel tank level in motor vehicle
B. To monitor the flow of solid
C. To monitor the flow of liquid
D. All of these
 Capacitive devices are used for the level measurement of
A. Only liquid
B. Solid in powdered form
C. Both (a) and (b)
D. None of these
 In ultrasonic level gauge, the ultrasonic source is placed at the

A. Bottom of the vessel containing the liquid
B. Top of the vessel containing the liquid
C. Middle of the vessel containing the liquid
D. Far from the vessel containing the liquid
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Weekly Assignment
Briefly describe the ‘Ultrasonic type’ Level Sensor.
Briefly describe Capacitive-type’ Level Sensor.
Discuss advantages of Capacitive-type’ Level Sensor.
Discuss advantages of the ‘Ultrasonic type’ Level Sensor
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Faculty Video Links, Youtube & NPTEL
Video Links and Online Courses Details
• Youtube /other Video Links:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5M0CedMBxwI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=48bwQVa0AQc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TeN1TMWyBzY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TPowbUhf0_Q&ab_channel
=Ekeeda
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAhPQtLFvyU&ab_channel
=Ekeeda
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MCQs
 The following is (are) type(s) of Hall Effect sensors.

(a) Linear Hall Effect sensor (b) Threshold Hall Effect
sensor
(c) Both (A) and (B) (d) None of the above
 Which of the following is not an analog sensor?

(a)Potentiometer (b) Force-sensing
resistors
(c) Accelerometers (d) None of the
mentioned
 Hall Effect sensors are used in

(A) Flow meter (B) Fuel level indicator
(C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of the above

12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 153

MCQs
 Following is (are) the type(s) of Light sensor(s)

(A) Photo senso (B) Photo transistors
(C) Photo conductor (D) All of the above
 Following type of sensors are used to generate information in

object grasping and obstacle avoidance.
(A) Hall E (B) Proximity sensor
(C) Light sensor (D) Optical sensors
 Inductive proximity sensors can be effective only when the

objects are of _____materials.
(A) Ferro magnetic (B) Diamagnetic

(C) Paramagnetic (D) All of the above
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MCQs
 In Hall effect, the output voltage produced across the crystal is due to:
a) Drop across the crystal is due to the current passed through it
b) Induced voltage by the applied magnetic field
c) Movement of charge carriers towards one end
d)All of the above
 Thermocouples
(a) require reference junction compensation
(b) are most commonly used as temperature transducer
(c) have an ion output voltage level (d) all of the above
 Which of these are active transducers?
1. LVDT 2. Piezoelectric
3. Thermocouple 4. Photovoltaic cell
5. Strain gauge
(a) 2, 3 and 5 (b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 5 (d) 2, 3 and 4
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 155

Glossary Questions
 In Hall effect, the output voltage produced across the crystal is due to:
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 156

Old Question Papers
Some Previous Years University Question Papers
Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3
Paper 4 Paper 5
Note: Please do the double tap on the images to open them.

12/14/2021
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 157157
Expected Questions for University Exam
Explain how thermistor can be used for temperature measurement.

Draw the characteristics of thermistor.
Explain Inductive and Capacitive type proximity sensor with the
suitable application.
Explain working principle of RTD with its characteristics graph?
What you mean by Pt-100? Why Pt-100 is prefer over other materials?
Briefly describe the ‘Ultrasonic type’ Level Sensor.
Briefly describe Capacitive-type’ Level Sensor.
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 158

Summary
 Measurement of temperature using RTD, Thermistors and

Thermocouple ( Thermopiles:- combinations of several thermocouples)
 Concept of thermal Imaging
 Measurement of position using Hall effect sensors
 Proximity sensors: Inductive & Capacitive
 Proximity sensors as accelerometer & vibration sensor
 Flow Sensors:Ultrasonic & LASER
 Level Sensors :Ultrasonic & Capacitive
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 159

References
 A K Sawhney, “Electrical & Electronic Measurement & Instrument”,

Dhanpat Rai & Sons, India
 Purkait, “Electrical & Electronics Measurement & Instrumentation”,

TMH
 DVS Murthy, Transducers and Instrumentation, PHI 2nd Edition2013
 D Patranabis, Sensors and Transducers, PHI 2nd Edition2013
 S. Gupta, J.P. Gupta / PC interfacing for Data Acquisition & Process

Control, 2nd ED / Instrument Society of America,1994
12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 160

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Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology,

Measurement of Physical Parameters

12/14/2021 Neha Jain S&A Unit :2 1

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•To understand the students about the demonstration the use of

Course •To understand the students about the identification of

Course •To impart the students to have knowledge about applications

Course Identify appropriate data acquisition methods for K1, K2

Course Design various real time products using smart sensors.

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COs PROGRAM OUTCOMES

(1/2/3 indicates the strength of Correlation) 3- strong,

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PSOs COURSE OUTCOMES

CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5

(1/2/3 indicates the strength of Correlation) 3- strong,

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Unit Unit Name Prerequisite Recap

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Unit 2 This unit covers various types of the

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S.No. Topic Objective Topic Outcomes

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S.No. Topic Objective Topic Outcomes

3. Flow To measure rate Students will be able to

4. Level To measure Students will be able to

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TOs COURSE OUTCOMES

(1/2/3 indicates the strength of Correlation)

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 Fig. shows the construction of a bead type thermistor. It has a small

Fig. Schematic of a thermistor

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• T0 is the reference temperature (normally 25oC)

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At 0°C, 3980 = a. 3980. exp (b/273) ……..(1.) a= 30x10-6

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 Thermistor is a contraction _________

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• Generally, thermocouples are used for measuring temperature over large

Fig. Law of homogeneous circuits

In above Figure, a thermocouple is shown with junction temperatures at

Fig. Law of intermediate metals

Fig. Law of intermediate temperatures

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 To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making

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Table: Thermocouple materials and temperature ranges

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Figure shows four thermocouples in parallel. This arrangement provides a large

3. Change in resistance due to rise in temperature = Rm.0042610 = 2.13