NIET Sensors and Applications

Noida Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Greater Noida
Data Acquisition Methods
Unit: 04
Sensors &
Its Applications
NEHA JAIN
(AEC 0304) Assistant Professor, EN dept.
NIET, Greater Noida
B.Tech (CSE-IOT)
Specialization: Control and
3rd Sem. Automation
Ms. Neha Jain AEC 0304 Sensor and its Applications Unit Number-04
1
12/14/2021
Content
 Evaluation Scheme
 Subject Syllabus
 Branch Wise Applications
 Course Objective
 Course Outcome (COs)
 Program Outcomes (POs)
 CO-PO Mapping
 Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)
 CO-PSO Mapping
 Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)
 Result Analysis (Departmental, Subject and Individual Faculty)
 End Semester Question Paper Templates (offline Pattern/ online
Pattern
12/14/2021 Ms. Neha Jain AEC 0304 Sensor and its Applications Unit Number-04 2
Content
 Prerequisite and Recap
 Brief Introduction about the subject with videos
 Unit Content
 Unit Objective
 Topic Objective/ Topic Outcome
 Lecture related to topic
 Daily Quiz
 Weekly Assignments
 Topic Links
 MCQ ( End of Unit)
 Glossary Questions
Content
 Old Question Papers (Sessional +University)
 Expected Questions
 Summary
Evaluation Scheme
Syllabus
Content
Course Code & Course Title AEC0304 (Sensor and its Applications) L T P (3 1 0) Credits (4)
Pre-requisites: Basic Electrical Engineering
Syllabus
Unit1 Sensors and Transducers: Sensors and Transducers: Definition, Classification of sensors, Measurement of 8 hours
displacement using Potentiometer, LVDT & Optical Encoder, Measurement of force using strain gauge,
Measurement of pressure using LVDT based diaphragm & piezoelectric sensor, Introduction to sensors
most widely used in computer and mobile phones: Temperature, Pressure, Humidity, Toxic Gas, pH
sensor, sound sensor, magnetic field sensor, Motion (Infra-red) sensor, barometer, and Gyroscope.
Unit 2 Measurement of physical parameters: Measurement of temperature using Thermistors, Thermocouple & 8 hours
RTD, Concept of thermal imaging, Measurement of position using Hall effect sensors, Proximity sensors:
Inductive & Capacitive, Use of proximity sensor as accelerometer and vibration sensor, Working
Principles of Flow Sensors: Ultrasonic &Laser, Level Sensors: Ultrasonic & Capacitive.
Unit 3 Virtual Instrumentation: Graphical programming techniques, Data types, Advantage of Virtual 8 hours
Instrumentation techniques, Concept of WHILE & FOR loops, Arrays, Clusters & graphs, Structures:
Case, Sequence & Formula nodes, Need of software based instruments for industrial automation.
Unit 4 Data Acquisition Methods: Basic block diagram, Analog and Digital IO, Counters, Timers, Types of ADC: 8 hours
successive approximation and sigma-delta, Types of DAC: Weighted Resistor and R-2RLadder type, Use
of Data Sockets for Networked Communication.
Unit 5 Intelligent Sensors: General Structure of smart sensors & its components, Characteristic of smart sensors: 8 hours
Self calibration, Self-testing & self-communicating, Selection of Sensors for Practical Applications,
Application of smart sensors:
12/14/2021 Automatic
Ms. Neha robot
Jain AEC control
0304 & and
Sensor automobile engine control.Unit Number-04
its Applications 6
Branch Wise Applications
 Industry Automation
 Traffic Monitoring
 Fleet Management
 Agriculture
 Hospitality
 Wearables
 Water supply
 Academic
 Power Plants
 Smart grid and energy saving
 Maintenance Management
 Medical
 Defence
Course Objective
Course •To impart the students to have a basic knowledge of sensors
Objective 1 to use for measurement of displacement, force and
pressure.
Course •To impart the students to have a knowledge of sensors that
Objective 2 used for measurement of temperature, position, acceleration,
Vibration sensor, flow and level.
•To understand the students about the demonstration the use of

Course
Virtual instrumentation in automation industries.
Objective 3
Course •To understand the students about the use of Data

Objective 4 acquisition system and their methods.
Course •To impart the students to have a knowledge about the

Objective 5 intelligent instrumentation in industry automation.
Course Outcomes
Once the student has successfully completed this course, he/she will be
able to:
Course •Apply the use of sensors for measurement of displacement ,
Outcome 1 force and pressure.
•Employ commonly used sensors in industry for measurement
Course
of temperature, position, accelerometer, vibration sensor, flow
Outcome 2
and level.
Course
•
Outcome 3 Use of virtual instrumentation in automation industries.
Course • Identify the use Data Acquisition Methods for smart

Outcome 4 systems.
Course • Design various real time products using smart sensors.

Outcome 5
Program Outcomes
PO1. Engineering knowledge
PO2. Problem analysis
PO3. Design/development of solutions
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems
PO5. Modern tool usage
PO6. The engineer and society
PO7. Environment and sustainability
PO8. Ethics
PO9. Individual and team work
PO10. Communication
PO11. Project management and finance
PO12. Project management and finance
Program Specific Outcomes
PSO1.
PSO2.
PSO3.
CO-PO and PSO Mapping
CO-PO Mapping
COs PROGRAM OUTCOMES

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 3 2 2 1 3 2 1 1 3 2 - 2
CO2 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 - 3 3 2 3
CO3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 - 2 3 2 2
CO4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2
CO5 3 3 3 3 3 3 - 3 3 1 2 2
(1/2/3 indicates the strength of Correlation) 3- strong,

2-Medium,
1- Weak
12/14/2021 12
Ms. Neha Jain AEC 0304 Sensor and its Applications Unit Number-04
CO-PO and PSO Mapping
CO-PSO Mapping
PSOs COURSE OUTCOMES
CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5

PSO1
PSO2
PSO3
(1/2/3 indicates the strength of Correlation) 3- strong,

2-Medium,
1- Weak
Program Education Objectives
PEO1.
PEO2.
PEO3.
Result Analysis (Departmental, Subject and
Individual Faculty)
End Semester Question Paper Template
B.Tech (Semester III Theory Examination 2020-21) Total Marks : 100
Note: Attempt all sections. If require any missing data, then choose suitably. Time: 3 hours
Section A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. 2 X 10 = 20
Q. No. Question Marks CO
a. to j 2
Section B
2. Attempt any three of the following 3 X 10 = 30
Q. No. Question Marks CO
a to e 10
Section C
Question no. 3,4,5,6,7. Attempt any one of the following 1 X 10 = 10
a 10
b 10
Text Books
Text Books
1. DVS Murthy, Transducers and Instrumentation, PHI 2nd Edition 2013
2. D Patranabis, Sensors and Transducers, PHI 2nd Edition 2013.
3. S. Gupta, J.P. Gupta / PC interfacing for Data Acquisition & Process Control, 2nd ED /
Instrument Society
of America, 1994.
4. Gary Johnson / Lab VIEW Graphical Programing II Edition / McGraw Hill 1997.
Reference Books
1. Arun K. Ghosh, Introduction to measurements and Instrumentation, PHI, 4th Edition 2012.
2. A.D. Helfrick and W.D. cooper, Modern Electronic Instrumentation & Measurement
Techniques, PHI –
2001
3. Hermann K.P. Neubert, “Instrument Transducers” 2nd Edition 2012, Oxford University Press.
4. John P. Bentley, Principles of measurement Systems, Pearson Education. 5. S. M. Sze,
Semiconductor
sensors, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
5. E. A. Doebelin, Measurement systems: application & design, Mc Graw Hill.
6. S. M. Sze, Semiconductor sensors, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Prerequisite and Recap
Unit Unit Name Prerequisite Recap

1 Sensors and Signals & Energy Signals Parameters
Transducers Transformation
2 Sensors and Signals & Energy Signals Parameters
Transducers Transformation
3 Virtual Study of System Sensors
Instrumentation Modeling
4 Data Study of Basic Sensors and
Acquisition Electronics Transducers
Methods
5 Smart Sensors Basic study of Parameters of
sensors Sensors
Brief Introduction about the subject with
videos
Content
UNIT4
 Data Acquisition Methods: Basic block diagram
 Analog and Digital IO
 Counters and Timers
 Types of ADC:
I. Successive approximation
II. Sigma-delta
 Types of DAC:
I. Weighted Resistor
II. R-2R Ladder type
 Use of Data Sockets for Networked Communication
Objective of Unit
Unit 4 This unit covers study of the process of

sampling signals that measure real world
physical conditions or analog signal and
converting the resulting samples into digital
numeric values that can be manipulated by a
computer.
Objective of Topics
S.No. Topic Objective Topic Outcomes
1. DATA To introduce the Students will be able
ACQUISITI concept to gather useful to understand the role
ON measurement data for of DAS in any
SYSTEMS characterization, monitoring system and
(DAS)
monitoring, or control. use to collect data
from different
sensors of a complex
system
2. Analog to To enable the Students will be able
Digital interfacing the real to interface an analog
Convertor world events with signal of physical
(ADC) microprocessors/ signals to an
computers for computer or a digital
monitoring or control control system.
Objective of Topics
S.No. Topic Objective Topic Outcomes

3. Digital To converts Students will be able to
to Analog a digital signal from the interface sensors (e.g.
Convertor computer into an analog temperature, pressure,
DAC signal which can be used light, sound, cruising
for any actuation in the displacement) to digital
real world systems such as
microcontrollers or
PCs.
TO and CO Mapping
TOs COURSE OUTCOMES

CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5
TO1 3 3 2 3 3
TO2 2 2 1 3 2
TO3 2 2 1 3 2
(1/2/3 indicates the strength of Correlation)

3- Strong,
2- Medium,
1- Weak
• Recap:
• Basic knowledge of Sensors and Transducers
• Prerequisite:
• Basics of Electronics Circuits.

• Basics of Signals & Energy parameters
Data Acquisition Systems(CO4)
A data acquisition system (DAQ) is an information system that collects,
stores and distributes information. It is used in industrial and commercial
electronics, and environmental and scientific equipment to capture electrical
signals or environmental conditions on a computer device.
A data acquisition system consists of many components that are integrated

to:
• Sense physical variables (use of transducers)
• Condition the electrical signal to make it readable by an A/D board
• Convert the signal into a digital format acceptable by a computer
• Process, analyze, store, and display the acquired data with the help of
software
Data acquisition and control hardware generally performs one or more of the
such functions:
analog input, analog output, digital input, digital output and counter/timer
functions.
• Data acquisition systems perform the following tasks :
i. Conversion of data
ii. Storage of data
iii. Transmission of data
iv. Processing of data.
Fig.4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

Transducers
Sense physical phenomena and translate it into electric signal.
 Temperature  Displacement
 Pressure  Level
 Light  Electric signals
 Force  ON/OFF switch
A transducer converts temperature, pressure, level, length, position, etc.

into voltage, current, frequency, pulses or other signals.
Signal Conditioning
Signal conditioning circuits improve the quality of signals generated by
transducers before they are converted into digital signals by the PC's
data-acquisition hardware. Electrical signals are conditioned so they can
be used by an analog input board. The following features may be
available:
 Amplification  Filtering
 Isolation  Linearization
Multiplexer
Multiplexing is the generic
term used to describe the
operation of sending one or
more analogue or digital
signals over a common
transmission line at different
times or speeds and as such,
the device we use to do just
that is called a Multiplexer.
Multiplexer is a data selector which takes several inputs and gives a single
output. In multiplexer we have 2n input lines and 1 output lines where n is the
number of selection lines.
A multiplexer of 2n inputs has n select lines, which are used to select which
input line to send to the output. Multiplexers are mainly used to increase the
amount of data that can be sent over the network within a certain amount of
time and bandwidth.
Analog Inputs (A/D)
Analog to digital (A/D) conversion changes analog voltage or current
levels into digital information. The conversion is necessary to enable the
computer to process or store the signals.
The most significant criteria when selecting A/D hardware are:
1. Number of input channels
2. Single-ended or differential input signals
3. Sampling rate (in samples per second)
4. Resolution (usually measured in bits of resolution)
5. Input range (specified in full-scale volts)
6. Noise and nonlinearity
A/D Converter: Input Signal
 Digital :Signal is either ON or OFF, Example: light switch.
 Analog :Signal is continuous, Example: strain gage. Most of
transducers produce analog signals
Computer
A Computer with the appropriate application software to process, analyze
and log the data to disk. Such software may also provide a graphical
display of the data.
Data Loggers
Data Logging is the recording of collected data over a period of time.
Depending on the application, the data can be temperature measurements,
voltages, current, humidity, or other signals of interest. A Data Logger is a
self-contained data acquisition system with a built-in processor and pre-
defined software embedded in the unit. Data loggers can run as stand-alone
devices and are popular because they are portable and easy to use for
specific tasks.
Types of Data Acquisition Systems(CO4)
• Data acquisition systems are of two types:
 Analog Data Acquisition Systems
 Digital Data Acquisition Systems
 Analog Data Acquisition Systems: The data acquisition systems,
which can be operated with analog signals are known as analog data
acquisition systems. It contains the following blocks:
 Transducer − It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.
 Signal conditioner − It performs the functions like amplification and
selection of desired portion of the signal.
 Display device − It displays the input signals for monitoring purpose.
 Graphic recording instruments − These can be used to make the
record of input data permanently.
 Magnetic tape instrumentation − It is used for acquiring, storing &
reproducing of input data.
Types of Data Acquisition Systems (Cont.
…) (CO4)
 Digital Data Acquisition Systems: The data acquisition
systems, which can be operated with digital signals are known
as digital data acquisition systems. They use digital components
for storing or displaying the information. Mainly, they perform the
following:
 Acquisition of analog signals

 Conversion of analog signals into digital signals or digital data
 Processing of digital signals or digital data
Types of Data Acquisition Systems (Cont.
…) (CO4)
Digital data acquisition systems comprises of following blocks:
 Transducer − It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.
 Signal conditioner − It performs the functions like amplification
and selection of desired portion of the signal.
 Multiplexer − connects one of the multiple inputs to output. So, it
acts as parallel to serial converter.
 Analog to Digital Converter − It converts the analog input into its
equivalent digital output.
 Display device − It displays the data in digital format.
 Digital Recorder − It is used to record the data in digital format.
Advantages/Disadvantages of Data
Acquisition Systems(CO4)
Advantages
 Reduced data redundancy

 Reduced updating errors and increased consistency
 Greater data integrity and independence from applications programs
 Improved data access to users through use of host and query languages
 Improved data security
 Reduced data entry, storage, and retrieval costs
 Facilitated development of new applications program
Advantages/Disadvantages of Data
Acquisition Systems(CO4)
Disadvantages
 Database systems are complex, difficult, and time-consuming to design

 Substantial hardware and software start-up costs
 Damage to database affects virtually all applications programs
 Extensive conversion costs in moving form a file-based system to a
database system
 Initial training required for all programmers and users
Daily Quiz
 For Lower Accuracies_____.
a) Digital acquisition system is used
b) Both digital and analog acquisition systems are used
c) Analog acquisition system is used
d) Mechanical data acquisition system
 Digital acquisition system are used when_____.
a) Bandwidth is high b)Bandwidth is medium
c) Bandwidth is zero d)Bandwidth is low
 What is a data acquisition system?
a) system used for data processing, conversion and transmission
b) accepts data as an input
c) removes noise
d) boosts the signal
Analog and Digital I/O(CO4)
 Analog Input: Analog input exists when variable voltage or current
values received from a sensor corresponds to a floating point
decimal value.
 Examples of Analog input devices
 Temperature sensors
 CO2 sensors/Smoke Detector
 Pressure sensors
 Humidity sensors
 Flow sensors
 Potentiometers.
 Analog output signals are also variable and can be used for such
things as opening a valve to a desired position.
 Examples of Output Devices: Monitor (CRT etc), Printers ,
Speaker(s), Head Phone, etc.
Analog and Digital I/O(CO4)
 Digital Output: Digital output exists when a voltage is applied to a pair
of digital output leads. This voltage can be sourced (sinked) by internal
or external sources. In addition, there can be pulse output when the
device is active. Examples of Digital (Discrete) output devices: Alarms,
Control relays, Fans, lights, horns, valves, Motor starters, solenoids
Digital I/O lines are commonly used when:
• To sense and control high- power AC/DC voltage through solid-state
relays.
• For low-current TTL signals like limit-switch inputs and other digital
lines.
• Digital I/O lines can also be used for parallel communication between
plug-in expansion cards and to generate strobe, pulse, clock and other
timing signals.
• Special-purpose digital I/O boards which use interrupt-driven control
can operate in the background while the computer is running another
application.
Basic of Logic Gates(CO4)
Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an
electronic circuit having one or more than one input and only one output.
The relationship between the input and the output is based on a certain
logic. Based on this, logic gates are named as AND gate, OR gate, NOT
gate etc.
Symbol of Logic Gates
Binary Number System(CO4)
Flip-Flops(CO4)
• A Flip Flop is a memory element that is capable of storing one bit of
information.
• It is also called as Bistable Multivibrator since it has two stable states
either 0 or 1.
There are following 4 basic types of flip flops-
S-R Flip/Flops:
• SR flip flop is the simplest type of flip flops.
• It stands for Set Reset flip flop.
• It is a clocked flip flop.
This device consists of two inputs, one called the Set, S and the other called
the Reset, R with two corresponding outputs Q and its inverse or
complement Q (not-Q).
Flip-Flops (Cont..) (CO4)
Logic Circuit
The logic circuit for SR Flip Flop constructed using NAND latch is as
shown below-
Construction of SR Flip Flop By Using NAND Latch-

This method of constructing SR Flip Flop uses-
NAND latch
Two NAND gates
Flip-Flops(CO4)
Truth Table of SR Flip-flop:
As well as using NAND gates, it is also possible to construct simple one-
bit SR Flip-flops using two cross-coupled NOR gates connected in the
same configuration.
Flip-Flops(CO4)
Flip-Flops(CO4)
Clock signal
• Clock signal is a periodic signal and its ON time and OFF time need
not be the same. You can represent the clock signal as a square wave,
when both its ON time and OFF time are same. This clock signal is
shown in the following figure:
Positive Edge
Negative Edge
State Table(CO4)
• The state table representation of a sequential circuit consists of three
sections labelled present state, next state and output.
• The present state designates the state of flip-flops before the occurrence
of a clock pulse.
• The next state shows the states of flip-flops after the clock pulse
• The output section lists the value of the output variables during the
present state.
In addition to graphical symbols,
tables or equations, flip-flops can
also be represented graphically
by a state diagram.
In this diagram, a state is
represented by a circle, and the
transition between states is
indicated by directed lines (or
arcs) connecting the circles.
Counters(CO4)
Counters (Cont..) (CO4)
Asynchronous or ripple counters
Asynchronous counters are those whose output is free from the clock
signal. Because the flip flops in asynchronous counters are supplied with
different clock signals, there may be delay in producing output.
The required number of logic gates to design asynchronous counters is
very less. So they are simple in design. Another name for Asynchronous
counters is “Ripple counters”.
• The number of flip flops used in a ripple counter is depends up on the
number of states of counter (ex: Mod 4, Mod 2 etc). The number of
output states of counter is called “Modulus” or “MOD” of the
counter. The maximum number of states that a counter can have is 2n
where n represents the number of flip flops used in counter.
For example, if we have 2 flip flops, the maximum number of outputs of
the counter is 4 i.e. 22. So it is called as “MOD-4 counter” or “Modulus
4 counter”.
The following two counters one by one.
1.) Async.Binary up counter 2)Async.Binary down counter
Asynchronous Counter:
 The toggle (T) flip-flop are being used. External clock is applied to
the clock input of flip-flop A and QA output is applied to the clock
input of the next flip-flop i.e. FF-B.
Logical Diagram Truth Table
Operation of Asynchronous or ripple counters
Counters (Cont…) (CO4)
Advantages
• Asynchronous counters can be easily designed by T flip flop or D flip
flop.
• These are also called as Ripple counters, and are used in low speed
circuits.
• They are used as Divide by- n counters, which divide the input by n,
where n is an integer.
Disadvantages
• Sometimes extra flip flop may be required for “Re synchronization”.
• To count the sequence of truncated counters (mod is not equal to 2n), we
need additional feedback logic.
• While counting large number of bits, the propagation delay of
asynchronous counters is very large.
• For high clock frequencies, counting errors may occur, due to propagation
delay.
Counters (Cont…) (CO4)
Applications of Asynchronous Counters
• Asynchronous counters are used as frequency dividers, as divide by N

counters.
• These are used for low power applications and low noise emission.
• These are used in designing asynchronous decade counter.
• Also used in Ring counter and Johnson counter.
• Asynchronous counters are used in Mod N ripple counters. EX: Mod 3,
Mod 4, Mod 8, Mod 14, Mod 10 etc.
Counters (Cont.….) (CO4)
• Synchronous Counter: In synchronous counter, "clock" pulses are applied
to all the flip-flops in a counter simultaneously. In synchronous counter, the
clock input across all the flip-flops use the same source and create the same
clock signal at the same time. So, a counter which is using the same clock
signal from the same source at the same time is called Synchronous counter.
 2-bit Synchronous up counter
In this, the JA and KA inputs of FF-A are tied to logic 1. So FF-A will work as a
toggle flip-flop. The JB and KB inputs are connected to QA.
Logical Diagram
Operation of Synchronous Counter
S.N. Condition
01 Initially let both QBQA = 00 initially.
the FFs be in the
reset state
02 After 1st negative As soon as the first negative clock edge is applied,
clock edge FF-A will toggle and QA will change from 0 to
1.But at the instant of application of negative clock
edge, QA , JB = KB = 0. Hence FF-B will not change
its state. So QB will remain 0.QBQA = 01 after the
first clock pulse.
03 After 2nd On the arrival of second negative clock edge, FF-A
negative clock toggles again and QA changes from 1 to 0.
edge But at this instant QA was 1. So JB = KB= 1 and FF-
B will toggle. Hence QB changes from 0 to 1.
QBQA = 10 after the second clock pulse.
Operation of Synchronous Counter
S.N. Condition
04 After 3rd On application of the third falling clock edge,
negative clock FF-A will toggle from 0 to 1 but there is no
edge change of state for FF-B.
QBQA = 11 after the third clock pulse.
05 After 4th On application of the next clock pulse, QA will

negative clock change from 1 to 0 as QB will also change from
edge 1 to 0.
QBQA = 00 after the fourth clock pulse.
The advantages of the Synchronous counter is as follows-
1.It’s easier to design than the Asynchronous counter.
2.It acts simultaneously.
3.No propagation delay associated with it.
4.Count sequence is controlled using logic gates, error chances are lower.
5.Faster operation than the Asynchronous counter.
one major disadvantage of working with Synchronous counter is that it
requires a lot of extra logic to perform.
Use of Synchronous Counter
Few applications where Synchronous counters are used-
1.Machine Motion control
2.Motor RPM counter
3.Rotary Shaft Encoders
4.Digital clock or pulse generators.
5.Digital Watch and Alarm systems.
Difference between Asynchronous and Synchronous Counter
Daily Quiz
 A counter circuit is usually constructed of _____
a) A number of latches connected in cascaded form
b) A number of NAND gates connected in cascaded form
c) A number of flip-flops connected in cascaded
d) A number of NOR gates connected in cascaded form
 What is the maximum possible range of bit-count specially in n-bit
binary counter consisting of ‘n’ number of flip-flops?
a) 0 to 2n
b) 0 to 2n + 1
c) 0 to 2n - 1
d) 0 to 2n+ NOR gates connected in cascaded form
 A decimal counter has _____states.
a)5 b)10
c)15 d)20
Weekly Assignment
 What are the components of DAQ?
 What is meant by data acquisition and data logger?
 Explain operation of Asynchronous or ripple counters
 Write down advantages of the Synchronous counter
 Explain the operation of Synchronous counter
Timer(CO4)
555 timer is an integrated circuit(IC).
• It is used in variety of timer, pulse generator, oscillator .
• It is used to provide delays in oscillator circuit .
• It was designed in 1971 by Hans R. Camenzind .
• 555 is used at commercial range of 0˚c to 70˚c.
• 555 is used at military purpose , it range of -55˚c to 125˚c .
PIN Diagram
• PIN1 – GROUND
• PIN2 – TRIGGER
• PIN3 – OUTPUT
• PIN4 – RESET
• PIN5 – CONTROL
• PIN6 – THRESHOLD
• PIN7 – DISCHARGE
• PIN8 – SUPPLY +Vcc
Timer(CO4)
Timer (Cont..) (CO4)
PIN Functioning
• Pin1 :- Ground , the ground pin connects the 555 timer to the negative
(0v) supply rail.
• Pin2 :- Trigger ,the negative input to comparator no. 1. a negative
pulse on this pin “sets” the internal flip-flop when the voltage drops
below 1/3 Vcc causing the output to switch from a “low” to a “high”
state .
• Pin3 :- Output , the output pin can drive any till circuit and is capable
of sourcing or sinking up to 200mA of current at an output voltage
equal to approximately Vcc – 1.5v so small speaker , LEDs or motors
can be connected directly to the output .
• Pin4 :- Reset , this pin is used to “reset” the internal flip-flop
controlling the state of the output, pin3. This is an active-low input
and is generally connected to a logic “1” level when not used to
prevent any unwanted resetting of the output .
PIN Functioning
• Pin5 :- Control voltage , this pin controls the timings of the 555 by
overriding the 2/3 Vcc level of the voltage divider network . by
applying a voltage to this pin the width of the output signal can be
varied independently of the RC timing network . when not used it is
connected to ground via a 10nf capacitor to eliminate any noise .
• Pin6 :- Threshold, the positive input of comparator no. 2 . this pin is

used to reset the flip-flop when the voltage applied to it exceeds 2/3
Vcc causing the output to switch from “high” to “low” state . this pin
connects directly to the RC timing circuit .
• Pin7 :- Discharge , the discharge pin is connected directly to the
collector of an internal NPN transistor which is used to “discharge”
the timing capacitor to ground when the output at pin 3 switches
“low” .
• Pin8 :- Supply +Vcc , this is the power supply pin and for general
purpose TTL 555 timers is between 4.5v and 15v .
Circuit Diagram
Types
1.) MONOSTABLE MULTIVAIBRATOR
2.) ASTABLE MULTIVAIBRATOR
3.) BISTABLE MULTIVAIBRATOR
Types
Timer(CO4)
Applications
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) & PPM (Pulse Position Modulation)
• Duty Cycle Oscillator
• Lamp Dimmer
• To provide Accurate time delays
• As a flip-flop element
• Digital logic probes
• Analog frequency meters
• Quad Timer applications
• Pulse, Waveform, and square wave generation
• Stepped tone & tone burst generator & linear ramp generation
• Tachometers & temperature measurement
• It can be used as monostable multivibrator and astable multivibrator
• DC to DC Converters
• DC Voltage Regulators
• Voltage to Frequency Converter
Sample and Hold Circuit(CO4)
• Used in the system, where it is important to sampled the value of input
voltage and Hold it for a certain period of time.
• In Sample and Hold circuit, there are two process:
1. Sampling the input signal
2. Hold the sampled value for a specific period of time.
In diagram, switch is controlled by using a control signal.
• Switch can be used either as a BJT or MOSFET. When they are properly
biased they can be used as BJT (as a switch).
• Switch is controlled by controlled voltage, which having two modes of
operation.
Two types of Switch:
1.Open Switch 2.Closed Switch
There is two modes of operation.

1. Sampling Mode
2. Holding Mode
1. Sampling Mode: Switch is to be

closed mode. So, Input voltage appears at
capacitor and capacitor will charge to the
instantaneous value of the input voltage
Vin. This process is called as Sampling
Process.
2. Holding Mode: When the switch is open
by using a controlled voltage, the capacitor
disconnects from input voltage Vin.
Therefore, there is no path for the capacitor
to be discharge because of this reason,
capacitor will hold the value of voltage
appear across it.
• It will hold the value until the next
sampling cycle.
Waveform of Sample and Hold Circuit
T = Ts + Th
Where,
Ts = Sampling Time
Th = Holding Time
Note: Taflon & Polyester

capacitor is mostly used
due to their leak proof
property.
Operational Amplifier(CO4)
For performing different
mathematical operations like
addition, subtraction, integration
& differentiation is used op-
Amp.
Symbol:
+ is Non – Inverting terminal
- is Inverting Terminal
With single output it’s called
differential Op-Amp.
Vout = A (V1 - V2)

Where, A is Gain.
Operational Amplifier(CO4)
Case1: If one input is grounded then output is:
Phase of the signal is

same. So, it is called
Non-inverting terminal.
Vout = AV1
Case2: If one input is grounded then

output is:
• Output signal phase is 180 degree
out of phase.
So, it is called inverting terminal.
Vout = - AV2
• Recap:
• Prerequisite:
Ms. Neha Jain AEC 0304 Sensor and its Applications Unit Number-
12/14/2021 74
04
ADC(CO4)
• An electronic integrated circuit which transforms a signal from analog
(continuous) to digital (discrete) form.
• Analog signals are directly measurable quantities.
• Digital signals only have two states. For digital computer, we refer to
binary states, 0 and 1.
Why we need ADC??
• Microprocessors can only perform complex processing on digitized
signals.
• When signals are in digital form they are less susceptible to the
deleterious effects of
additive noise.
• ADC Provides a link between the analog world of transducers and the
digital world of
signal processing and data handling.
ADC(CO4)
Applications of ADC:
• ADC are used virtually everywhere where an analog signal has to be

processed, stored, or transported in digital form.
• Some examples of ADC usage are digital volt meters, cell phone,
thermocouples, and
digital oscilloscope.
• Microcontrollers commonly use 8, 10, 12, or 16 bit ADCs.
ADC (Cont..) (CO4)
Process of ADC:
Steps:
 Sampling and Holding (S/H)
 Quantizing and Encoding (Q/E)
Types of ADC(CO4)
Types of ADC
• Dual Slope A/D Converter
• Successive Approximation A/D Converter
• Flash A/D Converter
• Delta-Sigma A/D Converter
• Other: Voltage-to-frequency, staircase ramp or single slope, charge balancing or
redistribution, switched capacitor, tracking, and synchro or resolver
Flash ADC
• Consists of a series of comparators, each one comparing the input signal to a unique
reference voltage.
• The comparator outputs connect to the inputs of a priority encoder circuit, which
produces a binary output
Types of ADC(Cont..) (CO4)
Process of Flash ADC Circuit
V7
D7
V1 = vref*R/8R= Vref/8
V6
D6
V2= vref*2R/8R= 2Vref/8
V5
D5
V4
D4
V3
D3
V2
D2
V1
D1
D0=0
Working:
• As the analog input voltage exceeds the reference voltage at each
comparator, the comparator outputs will sequentially saturate to a
high state.
• The priority encoder generates a binary number based on the highest-
order active input, ignoring all other active inputs.
ADC Output:
Flash Type ADC Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simplest in terms of • Lower resolution
operational theory
• Most efficient in terms of • Expensive

speed, very fast
• limited only in terms of • For each additional output

comparator and gate bit, the number of
propagation delays comparators is doubled i.e.
for 8 bits, 255 comparators
needed
Dual Slope ADC
Fundamental components
• Integrator
• Electronically Controlled Switches
• Counter
• Clock
• Control Logic
• Comparator
Working: Integrator
Case1: At t<0,
S1 is set to ground, S2 is closed, V0 = 0 and counter=0.
Case 2: At t>=0, (0 to t1-----T1)
S2 is open, and S1 is set so the input to the integrator is Vin.
S1 is held for T1 which is a constant predetermined time interval.
(=0)
Zero detector output =1

When zero detector ouput is set, control logic =1 and the counter begins to
count clock pulses, the counter resets to zero after T1.
• Vout of integrator at t=T1 is VINT1/RC is linearly proportional to VIN
Case 3: At t>T1 (t1 to t2----- T2) , S1 is set so -Vref is the input to the
integrator which has the voltage VINT1/RC stored in it.
• The integrator voltage then drops linearly with a slop -Vref/RC.
• …  0= (T2) -
………….  Vin = Vref (T2/T1)
Zero detector output will be 0. At t= T2, counter will be stopped,

count pulses between t1 to t2 will be counted which is directly
proportional to the Vin.
 Conversion result is  Slow because of this it can not use
insensitive to errors in the in data acquisition devices and in
component values. signal processing applications because
 Fewer adverse affects from of need of lots of data continuously
“noise” required.
 High Accuracy, High  Accuracy is dependent on the use
resolution and high reliability of precision external components
that’s why it is used in  Cost
measurement instruments
where high reliable circuits are
required. It is commonly used
in digital multimeters.
Sigma-Delta(Σ-Δ) ADC(CO4)
Sigma-Delta(Σ-Δ) ADC:
• Comparator represented with
Delta and provide the difference.
• Integrator is provide summation
of all previous input and present
inputs. So, Sigma denote
integration.
• Modern Sigma-delta converters
offer high resolution, high
integration, low power
consumption, and low cost,
making them a good ADC choice
for applications such as process
control, precision temperature
measurements, and weighing
scales.
Working: Firstly, input (X1) is given to difference amplifier, then X2

signal is becoming the input of integrator. Integrator summed both the
present signal and previous signal. Then it provide integrated output
signal.
So, here at comparator (1-bit ADC), the positive voltage must be greater
than the negative voltage to get 1(high) as output. Finally at digital filter,
how many no. of 1’s and 0’s it depends on signal input.
Now, if comparator gives 1–bit output to 1-bit DAC then output of DAC
is +1 and if comparator gives 0 as a output to DAC then Output of DAC
is -1.
 High resolution  Slow due to

oversampling
 No precision
external
components
needed
Successive Approximation ADC(CO4)
Successive Approximation ADC:
• A Successive Approximation
Register (SAR) is added to the
circuit
• Instead of counting up in binary
sequence, this register counts by
trying all values of bits starting
with the MSB and finishing at the
LSB.
• The register monitors the
comparators output to see if the
binary count is greater or less than
the analog signal input and adjusts
the bits accordingly
Successive Approximation ADC:
Process:
1. MSB initialized as 1
2. Convert digital value to
analog using DAC
3. Compares guess to
analog input
4. Is Vin>VDAC
• Set bit 1
• If no, bit is 0 and test
next bit
Output of Successive Approximation:
• Capable of high speed and reliable
• Medium accuracy compared to • Higher resolution,
other ADC successive approximation
• Good tradeoff between speed and ADC’s will be slower
cost • Speed limited to ~5Mbps
• Capable of outputting the binary
number in serial (one bit at a time)
format.
Daily Quiz
1. The successive approximation converters have a resolution of
(a) 8-10 bits, ( b) 10-12 bits, (c) 12-16 bits, (d) 16-32
bits
2. The main operations that are basically performed in a SAR ADC are?
(a) logic to control the operation, (b) some way of generating the
voltages, for comparison, (c) logic to control the operation and
finding some way of generating the voltages for comparison
(d) none of above.
3. A 12 bit dual ramp generation has a maximum output voltage of
+12v. Compute
the equivalent digital number for the analog signal of +6v
(a)1000000000, (b)10000000000, (c)1000000000000, (d)
100000000000
4. The accuracy of A/D conversion is generally

(a) ± 1 2 𝐿𝑆𝐵, (b) ± 𝐿𝑆𝐵 (c) ± 5 4 𝐿𝑆𝐵 (d) None of the above
Weekly Assignment
 Describe the operation of ‘successive approximation’ type ADC

with suitable circuit diagram and example.
 What is ADC? Explain the sigma delta methods of analog to digital
converter. Mention pros and cons of Σ-∆ type ADC.
 What is the need of ADC in DAS?
 What are the different types of ADC? Which is fastest?
 What are the applications of ADC?
• Recap:
• Prerequisite:
12/14/2021 94
04
DAC(CO4)
A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) takes a digital code as its input and
produces an analog voltage or current as its output. This analog output is
proportional to the digital input.
100101…
DAC
DAC(CO4)
General Concept: Digital to Analog conversion involves transforming the
computer’s binary output in 0’s and 1’s (1’s typically = 5.0 volts) into an
analog representation of the binary data.
DAC:
• N (0 to n-1 or 1 to N) digital inputs for digital encoding
• Analog reference voltage for Vmax or Vref
• analog output a (Vout)
Binary input for N bit digit word,
Bin = (x1 2-1 + x2 2-2+…………+ xN 2-N)
x1 = MSB, xN = LSB
Analog output Voltage, Vout = Vref. Bin = Vref (x1 2-1 + x2 2-2+…………+ xN
2-N)
In General, Analog output = K. digital input (Where, K = proportionality
factor)
DAC (Cont..) (CO4)
Block Diagram of DAC:
VLSB = Vref / 2N
V(MSB)= Vref/2
Types of DACs
• Many types of DACs available.
• Usually switches, resistors, and op-amps used to implement conversion
Two Types:
1.) Binary Weighted Resistor
2.) R-2R Ladder
Types of DAC(Cont..) (CO4)
1.)
Binary Weighted Resistor: Utilizes a summing op-amp circuit
Conversion from D to A is the process of converting digital codes into a
continuous range of analog signal levels.
A DAC having weights using the power of two is called a binary weighted
DAC.
• Weighted resistors are used to distinguish each bit from the most
significant to the least significant
• Transistors are used as a switch between Vref and ground (bit high or low).
Where, Vref = reference voltage

a0, a1, a2……….. aN-1= bit coefficients or
input digital word
a0 = MSB ,aN-1= LSB
N= no of bits.
Rf = feedback resistance
Binary Representation:
Output Voltage Analysis:
Binary Weighted Resistor

Advantages:
• Simple Construction/Analysis
• Fast Conversion
Disadvantages:
• Requires large range of resistors with necessary high precision for
low resistors
• Accuracy of Vref is required.
• Requires low switch resistances in transistors
• Perfection of the switches
• Can be expensive. Therefore, usually limited to 8-bit resolution.
• Main disadvantage is that the resistor values increase in multiples
of 2. It is difficult to fabricate high value resistance by integrated
circuit methods. This problem is overcome by R-2R ladder type
DAC.
R-2R Ladder DAC: Remove the disadvantage of binary weighted resistor.
Each bit corresponds
to a switch:
• If the bit is high, the

corresponding switch
is connected to the
inverting input of the
op-amp.
• If the bit is low, the

Bit: 0 0 0 0
corresponding switch
4-bit converter is connected to
ground.
R-2R Ladder DAC:
Vref V1 V2 V3 V3
Ideal Op-amp
2R 2R
Req 
 2 R  2 R 
R
 2R  2R 
R-2R Ladder DAC:
Vref V1 V2 V3 V2 V3
R R
 R  1
V3   V2  V2
 RR 2
Likewise, 1
V2  V1
Vout 2
1
V1  Vref
2
Vout   IR
R-2R Ladder DAC:
Results:
1 1 1
Vref V1 V2 V3 V3  Vref , V2  Vref , V1  Vref
8 4 2
 V V V V 
Vout   R b3 ref  b2 ref  b1 ref  b0 ref 
 2R 4R 8R 16 R 
Where b3 corresponds to bit 3,

b2 to bit 2, etc.
If bit n is set, bn=1
If bit n is clear, bn=0
R-2R Ladder DAC:
For a 4-Bit R-2R Ladder
 1 1 1 1 
Vout  Vref  b3  b2  b1  b0 
 2 4 8 16 
For general n-Bit R-2R Ladder or Binary Weighted Resister DAC
n
1
Vout  Vref  bn i i
i 1 2
R-2R Ladder DAC
Advantages
• Only two resistor values (R and 2R)
• Does not require high precision resistors
R-2R Ladder DAC contains only two values of resistor: R and 2R. So, it
is easy to select and design more accurate resistors. If more number of
bits are present in the digital input, then we have to include required
number of R-2R sections additionally.
Disadvantage
• Lower conversion speed than binary weighted DAC
Daily Quiz
 A 6 bit ladder D/A converter has input 101001. For 1 = 10 V and 0 =
0V, The output is:
(a) 4.23, (b) 6.51, (c) 5.52, (d) 9.23
 An 8 bit successive approximation analog to digital converter
has full scale reading of 2.55 V and its conversion time for an
analog input of 1V is 20µs. The conversion time for a 2V
input will be
(a) 10 µs (b) 20 µs (c) 40 µs (d) 50 µs
 A 10 bit D/A converter given a maximum output of 10.23V.
The resolution is
(a) 10 mV,
(b) 20 mV,
(c) 15 mV,
(d) 25 mV
Use of Data Sockets for Networked
Communication(CO4)
What is a Socket ?
• A Socket is one endpoint of a two-way communication link between two
processes running on the network.
• A Unix Socket is used in a client-server application framework. A server
is a process that performs some functions on request from a client. Most
of the application-level protocols like FTP, TCP, SMTP, and POP3 make
use of sockets to establish connection between client and server and then
for exchanging data.
• Sockets provide an interface for programming networks at the transport
layer
Communication(CO4)
Socket Address
• Process to Process delivery of data needs two identifiers, IP Address and

Port Number at each endpoint
• Socket Address combination of IP address and a Port number
Example
Communication(CO4)
Socket Address
 Transport Layer Protocol needs a pair of Socket addresses

– Client Socket Address
• Uniquely defines the Client Process
– Server Socket Address
• Uniquely defines Server Process
 Both Socket Addresses contain IP Header and Transport Layer Protocol
Header
– IP Header contains IP Addresses
– TCP & UDP Header contains the Port Numbers
Communication(CO4)
Socket Communication
• A server (program) runs on a specific computer and has a socket that is
bound to a specific port. The server waits and listens to the socket for a
client to make a connection request.
• The client makes a connection request knowing the hostname and port
Number on which the server is listening. The client binds to its local port
number that it will use during this connection.
Communication(CO4)
• It needs a new socket so that it can continue to listen to the original socket
for connection requests while tending to the needs of the connected client.
• If connection is established, the server gets a new socket bound to the
same local port and also has its remote endpoint set to the address and
port of the client.
• If the connection is accepted by the Client, a socket is successfully

created and the client can use the socket to communicate with the
server.
• The client and server can now communicate by using their sockets.
Faculty Video Links, Youtube & NPTEL
Video Links and Online Courses Details
• Links
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZcTTkCWnQNg&feature=emb
_imp_woyt
 https://youtu.be/wa7pIviT-do
 https://youtu.be/nigEcGE2Ql0
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6JYH8mWtE4o
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_yrF0KbBrAk
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2gF_nfaBV_0
 https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/106/117106034/
12/14/2021 114
04
Daily Quiz
 A 6 bit ladder D/A converter has input 101001. For 1 = 10 V and 0 =
0V, The output is:
(a) 4.23, (b) 6.51, (c) 5.52, (d) 9.23
 An 8 bit successive approximation analog to digital converter
has full scale reading of 2.55 V and its conversion time for an
analog input of 1V is 20µs. The conversion time for a 2V
input will be
(a) 10 µs (b) 20 µs (c) 40 µs (d) 50 µs
 A 10 bit D/A converter given a maximum output of 10.23V.
The resolution is
(a) 10 mV,
(b) 20 mV,
(c) 15 mV,
(d) 25 mV
Weekly Assignment
 Discuss the operation of Data Acquisition methods (DAQ) with neat

block diagram.
 What is the use of data sockets for networked communication?
 Discuss the working & construction of Successive
Approximation type ADC.
 Describe the working & construction of Sigma-Delta ADC.
 Explain the working & construction of R-2R Ladder DAC.
 Explain the working & construction of Weighted Resistor DAC
MCQs
 How many clock pulses do a successive approximation converter
requires for obtaining a digital output.
(a) Twelve, (b) Six, (c) Eight, (d) None of the mentioned Output of
smart
 At what condition error occurs in the servo tracking A/D Converter?

(a) Slow change input, (b) Rapid change in input, (c) No change in
input
d) All of the mentioned
 Input data of ADC will be _____________

(a) Analog, (b) Digital, (c) Analog and digital, (d) None of the
mentioned
MCQs
 Output of Analog to Digital Converter will be of
________________
(a) Analog, (b) Digital, (c) Analog and digital, (d) None of the
mentioned
 Which A/D converter is considered to be simplest, fastest and most

expensive?
(a) Servo converter, (b) Counter type ADC, (c) Flash type ADC
(d) All of the mentioned.
 Which type of ADC follow the conversion technique of changing

the analog input signal to a linear function of frequency?
(a) Direct type ADC
(b) Integrating type ADC
(c) Both integrating and direct type ADC
(d) None of the mentioned
Old Question Papers
Some Previous Years University Question Papers
Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3
Paper 4 Paper 5
Note: Please do the double tap on the images to open them.

Ms. Neha Jain AEC 0304 Sensor and its
12/14/2021 VISHAL unit 4 119
Applications Unit Number-04
12/14/2021
SHARMA
Expected Questions for University Exam
•
1. Explain the Data Acquisition methods (DAQ) with block diagram.
[AKTU2019]
2. What is the use of data sockets for networked communication?
3. An 8 bit DAC has = 5volts. What is the output voltage when
10110100?
4. Explain the working & construction of Successive Approximation
type ADC. [AKTU2017]
5. Write the advantages and disadvantages over other types of
ADC. [AKTU2018]
6. Explain the working & construction of Sigma-Delta ADC.
[AKTU2019]
7. Explain the working & construction of R-2R Ladder DAC.
[AKTU2018]
8. Explain the working & construction of Weighted Resistor DAC
[AKTU2019]
Summary
In this presentation, we covered the following:

 Data Acquisition Methods: Basic block diagram
 Analog and Digital IO
 Counters and Timers
 Types of ADC:
I. Successive approximation
II. Sigma-delta
 Types of DAC:
I. Weighted Resistor
II. R-2R Ladder type
 Use of Data Sockets for Networked Communication
References
 A K Sawhney, “Electrical & Electronic Measurement &

Instrument”, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, India
 Purkait, “Electrical & Electronics Measurement &
Instrumentation”, TMH
 DVS Murthy, Transducers and Instrumentation, PHI 2nd
Edition2013
 D Patranabis, Sensors and Transducers, PHI 2nd Edition2013
 S. Gupta, J.P. Gupta / PC interfacing for Data Acquisition &
Process Control, 2nd ED / Instrument Society of America,1994
Thank You

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Noida Institute of Engineering and

Technology, Greater Noida

Data Acquisition Methods

•To understand the students about the demonstration the use of

Course •To understand the students about the use of Data

Course •To impart the students to have a knowledge about the

Course • Identify the use Data Acquisition Methods for smart

Course • Design various real time products using smart sensors.

COs PROGRAM OUTCOMES

(1/2/3 indicates the strength of Correlation) 3- strong,

PSOs COURSE OUTCOMES

CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5

(1/2/3 indicates the strength of Correlation) 3- strong,

Unit Unit Name Prerequisite Recap

Unit 4 This unit covers study of the process of

S.No. Topic Objective Topic Outcomes

TOs COURSE OUTCOMES

(1/2/3 indicates the strength of Correlation)

• Basics of Electronics Circuits.

A data acquisition system consists of many components that are integrated

Fig.4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

A transducer converts temperature, pressure, level, length, position, etc.

 Acquisition of analog signals

 Reduced data redundancy

 Database systems are complex, difficult, and time-consuming to design

Symbol of Logic Gates

Construction of SR Flip Flop By Using NAND Latch-

• Asynchronous counters are used as frequency dividers, as divide by N

05 After 4th On application of the next clock pulse, QA will

 What are the components of DAQ?

 What is meant by data acquisition and data logger?

 Explain operation of Asynchronous or ripple counters

 Write down advantages of the Synchronous counter

 Explain the operation of Synchronous counter

• Pin6 :- Threshold, the positive input of comparator no. 2 . this pin is

There is two modes of operation.

1. Sampling Mode: Switch is to be

Note: Taflon & Polyester

Vout = A (V1 - V2)

Phase of the signal is

Case2: If one input is grounded then

• Basics of Electronics Circuits.

• ADC are used virtually everywhere where an analog signal has to be

• Microcontrollers commonly use 8, 10, 12, or 16 bit ADCs.

Flash Type ADC Advantages and Disadvantages

• Most efficient in terms of • Expensive

• limited only in terms of • For each additional output

Zero detector output =1

Zero detector output will be 0. At t= T2, counter will be stopped,

Working: Firstly, input (X1) is given to difference amplifier, then X2

 High resolution  Slow due to

4. The accuracy of A/D conversion is generally

 Describe the operation of ‘successive approximation’ type ADC

 What are the applications of ADC?

• Basics of Electronics Circuits.

Where, Vref = reference voltage

Binary Weighted Resistor

• If the bit is high, the

• If the bit is low, the

Where b3 corresponds to bit 3,

If bit n is set, bn=1

If bit n is clear, bn=0

• Process to Process delivery of data needs two identifiers, IP Address and