CHAPTER 4: CARPENTRY

PRESENTEB BY: GROUP V

 01 INTRODUCTION 02 4-2 TO 4-4
Discussion about the • Wood Floor System
history of the topic. • The Roof System
• Types of Roof
TABLE OF CONTENTS

System

03 4-5 AND 4-6 04 4-7 AND 4-8

• Intermediate Joints • Splicing
• End Joints • Glued Laminated
• Lumber

05 4-9 AND 4-10 06 4-11 AND 4-12

• Timber Framing • Stairs
Fastener • Laying out the Stair
• Joinery
 CARPENTRY
INTRODUCTION

The traditional method of construction utilizing wood as post

have been superseded by reinforced concrete column and steel
structure. The used of lamber in most construction is now
limited to floor, roof framing, studs, joists, ceiling, and
paneling.

Lumber materials is fast becoming scarce and costly despite of

its becoming inferior n quality for being produced from young
small trees. The most abundant wood and the cheapest
construction material sometime ago is now considered a hot
item commodities not to mention its prohibited price like gold.
 JOIST

STUD

ROOF FRAMING

CEILING AND PANELING

 WOODEN POST
• Buildings were created with wooden post
directly resting ground to desirable
flooring depth.
• Wood posts were provided with
the concrete footings and anchor
strap.
 GIRTS
• Charcoal and chalk mark is (steel)
established along the face of the
post connecting both ends.
• The height of girder and girts are
indicated from the floor“This
lineis amaking
quote. Wordsthe
full of wisdom that someone
GIRDER (steel)
important said and can make the reader get inspired.”
necessary dap before its erection to —Someone famous

ascertain that the both girder and girts

are in the horizontal level. However, it
is assumed that the concrete footing is
horizontally leveled with floor line.
Simplified Methods Construction
• The post erected manually using 2 x 3 lumber braces
and man power or by the use of rope and puffy
mounted on a jump-pole.

• Vertical position of the post on two sides are checked

with the aid of plump bob then secured braced and
nailed to the post strap.

• Hole is drilled across the opposite post trap and

bolted to its permanent position. The drill diameter
should be the same size as the machine bolt.
WOOD FLOOR
SYSTEM

when many joist are installed next to each

other and a sub-floor sheeting like
plywood or Oriented Strand Board (OSB),
is nailed on the top they create a large floor
area called “Floor System”
GRIDERS
- Is a primary beam and
its main job is to transfer
loads to the columns upon
which it rests.
- is a principal beam extending from wall to
wall or the structural member that support the
floor joist
WOOD GIRDER
Mercury
Mercury is the closest
planet to the Sun Jupiter

50,000,000
Jupiter is a gas giant and
the biggest planet in our
Solar System

Saturn
It’s a gas giant, composed
mostly of hydrogen and
helium

DESIGN PERMITS

Mars
Despite being red, Mars is
a cold place, not hot. It’s
full of iron oxide dust
MATERIAL
WORKS
S
If you want to modify this graph, click on it, follow the
link, change the data and replace it
STEEL GIRDER

Venus has a beautiful Mercury is the closest Jupiter is a gas giant and
name and is the second planet to the Sun and the the biggest planet in our
planet from the Sun. It’s smallest one in the Solar Solar System. It’s the
terribly hot—even hotter System—it’s only a bit fourth-brightest object in
than Mercury larger than our Moon the sky

Goal 1 Goal 2 Goal 3

GIRDER may be either:
a. Solid
b. Built up
FLOOR JOIST
- are laid in a parallel series across or
abutting girders or a bearing wall, to
which they are attached, usually by
metal supports called joist hangers, or
anchors.
-used to support floor that spans over
an open area
- Floor Joist are fastened on the girders at a
distance of 30 to 40 centimeters rigidly secured by
bridging to prevent from turning sideways.
 JOIST BRIDGING
- stiffens the floor joist
- diagonal bracing (in pairs) between adjacent floor
joists to prevent the joists from twisting.
 SILL OR WOOD PLATE
- Is the side part of the house that rest horizontally upon the
foundation. A wood member fastened with anchor bolts to
the foundation wall or beam, others called it WOOD PLATE.
HEADER
- A beam place perpendicular o joist and to which joist are nailed in
framing for chimney, stairway, or other opening.
- Is a short transverse joist that supports the end of the cut-off joist at
a stair well hole
TRIMMER
- The vertical stud that supports
the header at a door, window, or
other opening.
-is a supporting joist which
carries an end position of a
header.
 TAIL BEAM

A-relatively short beam or joist

supported in a wall on one end
and by a header at the other
TONGUE AND GROOVE FLOOR
- Means that each floorboard piece has a
protruding tongue side and a receiving
groove side. The tongue ad the groove
each run the entire perimeter of the
piece, on all four sides.
 DRAFT STOP PLATE

- is a material, device or construction

installed to restrict the movement of air
within of concealed areas of buildings
components such as crawl spaces, floor-
ceiling assembles, and attics.
 LODGER STRIP
- Foundation provide support for structures, transferring
their load to layers of soil r rock that have sufficient bearing
capacity and suitable settlement characteristics.
THE ROOF SYSTEM
Roof system has several forms and
numerous varieties of shapes
Shed or Lean-to type
- is the simplest form of roof system consisting of one
single slop.
2. Gable or Pitch roof
– is the most common type and
economical form of roof made of
triangular sections consisting of two
slopes meeting at the center of the ridge
forming a gable.
3. Double Gable roof
– is a modification of a gable or a hip and
valley roof.
 4. Saw Tooth Roof
– is the development of the shed type made into a series of lean-to
roof covering one building. Thus is commonly used on factories
where extra lighting is required through the window on the
vertical side.

29
 5. Hip Roof
–is also common form used in modern houses having
straight sides all sloping toward the center of the building
terminating at the ridge.

30
 6. Pyramid
–is a modification of the
roof wherein the four
straight sides are sloping
towards the center
terminating at a point.

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32
 7. Hip and Valley Roof
–is a combination of hip roof and an intersecting gable roof
forming a T or L shaped building. This type of roof form,
however, has a variety of modifications.

33
8. Gambrel
Roof
–is a modification of the gable
roof with each side having
two slopes

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9. Mansard
Roof
–where the sides of the roof
slope steeply from each side of
the building towards the center
forming a flat deck on top

35
 10. Ogee Roof
–is a pyramid form having steep sides
slopping to the center

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11. Dome 12. French or
–is a hemispherical for of roof usually
used on observatory buildings. Concave Mansard
Roof
–is a modification of the mansard roof
where the sides are concave.

37
13. Conical 14. Butterfly Roof
-is a two shed roof where the slope
Roof or meet at the center of the building.

Spire
–is a steep roof of
circular section that
tapers uniformly from
the circular base to a
central point

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 TYPES OF ROOF
FRAME

39
1. Rafters Type

40
Common Rafter are rafters extended at right angle from the plate or girts to the ridge.

Hip Rafters are rafters laid diagonally from the corner of a plate or girts to the ridge.

Valley Rafters is any rafters which does not extended from the plate or girts to the ridge.

Jack Rafters is the frame between the hip rafters and the girts classified as:

1. Hip Jack - is the frame between the hip rafters and girts
2. Valley Jack – the frame between the ridge and the valley rafters.
3. Cripple Jack – those frames between the hip and the valley rafters.

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Octagonal Rafters are rafters placed on an octagonal shaped plate at the central apex or
ridge pole.

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2. Truss Type

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Truss is a built-up frame employed on a long span roof unsupported by intermediate
columns of portions.

Truss is a design of series of triangles used to distribute load and stiffen the structure
spacing offering flexibility for the interior as well as strength and rigidity .

Different Types of Trusses

1. Light Trusses
2. Heavy Trusses

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Light Trusses include:
a. Pitched truss f. 1 ½ Storey frame
b. Howe truss g. Utility
c. Scissors truss h. Flat
d. Raised chord truss i. Bowstring
e. Sawtooth truss

Heavy Trusses include:

a. How truss f. Cambered fink truss
b. Belgian truss g. Sawtooth truss
c. Fink truss h. Flat pratt truss
d. Pratt truss i. Flat howe truss
e. Scissors truss j. Warren truss
45
Girts is that structural member that supports the rafters or trusses of a building.

Collar Beam is the ties between rafters on opposite sides of the roof.

46
 INTERMEDIATE JOINTS

47
Conditions in making Intermediate Joints

1. Timber joints shall be within the centerline of the members meeting on a common point so as to
prevent rotation at the joints. Unless steel strap and gusset plates with bolts are employed, wood
joint should not be used to counteract tension forces.
2. For structures with smaller stresses, wood connections shall be provided with dapping or
notching at the strut to the adjoining member in the design position.
3. Metal bearing plate bolted connections or bearing blocks shall be specified for structures with
large stresses.
4. Pocket joints that will collect moisture shall be avoided. All joints should be kept aligned and as
simple as possible for case in carpentry work.

48
5. When a strut is at right angle with the top chord, a 20 mm dowel or 16 mm lag screw should be used to
hold the strut securely in place. When the strut carries larges stresses, the following joints may be
employed:
a. Butt block or Angle block- it is hard wood with the same thickness as the top chord. The length of
the block should be adjusted to fit all possible conditions and interference with other connections.

49
b. Steel S-Shaped bearing plate- should be the same width as the top chord.

c. Cast iron solid angle bear block- Is a solid block covering the whole width of the top chord cast at holes not
less than 16 mm thick provided with a lug into the top chord.

50
d. Cast iron angle bearing block with web- With web should have a minimum thickness of 20 mm.

Center Joint of Howe Truss

this type of joint is provided with a butt or angle
block at the center intermediate joint. Howe truss
bridge is a type of bridge design that was introduced
by an American Architect William Howe in 1840.

51
Peak Joint
has various types depending upon the design as
shown on the following illustration
End Joints
There are Five types of Rafter and Truss
End Joints:
1. Pinning the top chord into the bottom
chord.
2. Notching the top chord into the lower
chord with bolts.
3. Using bent strap or shoe plate with lugs or
flats.
4. Using the side plates with flats or tables.
5. Using malleable cast iron shoe.
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 Notching Top Chord and Lower Chord

1. Notching with bolts.

2. Notching with bolts and wood key.

53
 3. Using bent strap with lugs or flats

5. Using malleable cast iron shoe

4. Using steel side plate with flats or tables riveted

to the plates

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 Splicing

55
There are three different ways of splicing
1. By lapping - is simply joining one member to the another.

2. Scarfing - scarfing is cutting away the opposite sides of two members then lap-jointed
to obtain a continuous piece of uniform thickness. This is popularly termed as half-lap

56
3. By Fishing - is joining two ends using two side blocks sometimes called splice
pads.

57
Types of Splicing Tension Members

1. Bolted wooden fish plate splice 2. Bolted steel fish plate

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59
 Glued Laminated Lumber

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Glued Laminated wood is a stress rated product of timber produced in laminating plant
from selected wood. The grains of the wood are mostly longitudinally parallel with each
other. In forming any length, each wood layer is bended slowly to a designed curved and
shape. They are securely laminated and bounded together with good adhesive.

Lumber intended for lamination do not exceed 5 centimeters in thickness. However, when
bending to a radius that is too sharp to permit the use of 5 cm. thick, a nominal thickness of 2
centimeters is used.

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A- frame

62
Gothic Tudor 3 Hinged Arch

63
3-Centered Radial

64
Parabolic

65
Closer look of
structures

66
67
 TIMBER FRAMING
FASTENER

68
Different types of timber fastener

• Nails
• Bolts
• Drift Bolts and Dowels
• Lag Screw
• Wood Screw

69
NAILS
70
71
72
 CLASSIFICATION OF NAILS
• Common Nails • Casing Nails
• Flooring Nails • Finishing Nails
• Roofing Nails • Brad Nails
• Box Nails • Special Nails

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 Common Nails

Common nails are standard, heavy-duty

nails for wood framing and other
structural work. Use them to build frames
for walls, floors, ceilings and roofs. As a
general rule, if you're building with "two-
by" (1 1/2-inch-thick) lumber, you should
be using common nails. The most widely
used sizes of common nails are 16d, 10d
and 8d.
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 Flooring Nails

Traditional cut flooring nails have tapered

square shanks, similar to horseshoe nails. They
are used to "blind-nail" hardwood floor or to
"face-nail" pine plank flooring. They are sold
individually (for hand-driving) and in strips for
use in nail guns or flooring nailers. Other types
of flooring nails have spiral-fluted shanks (for
holding power) and small heads for a finished
look when they are face-nailed.
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 Roofing Nails
You can guess what roofing nails are used for.
They're short—about 1 to 2 inches long—and
have wide flat heads for holding down shingle
materials without damaging them. Roofing
nails are commonly made of galvanized steel
but can also be aluminum or specialty materials
such as stainless steel and copper. Standard
roofing nails are designed for composition
(asphalt) shingles and wood shingles and
shakes. Nails for metal roofing have a neoprene
gasket under the head to keep water out of the
hole made by the nail.
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 Box Nails
Box nails are the thinner, weaker cousin of
the common nail. They're generally
designed for basic wood construction using
"one-by" (3/4-inch-thick) lumber or sheet
materials like plywood. Because they are
thinner than common nails, box nails are
easier to drive and tend to split wood less
readily. They're also easier to bend and
break while hammering them. Use them for
basic construction joints that don't require
structural strength. 77
Casing Nails
Box nails are the thinner, weaker cousin of the
common nail. They're generally designed for basic
wood construction using "one-by" (3/4-inch-thick)
lumber or sheet materials like plywood. Because
they are thinner than common nails, box nails are
easier to drive and tend to split wood less readily.
They're also easier to bend and break while
hammering them. Use them for basic construction
joints that don't require structural strength.
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Finishing Nails
Also called finish_ing_ nails, finish nails are thin
and have small, rounded heads that sink smoothly
into wood. They are the standard choice for all
types of wood trimwork, such as baseboards,
window and door casing, and crown molding.
With careful hammering, you can drive a finish
nail flush, or even slightly below the surface, with
a hammer alone. But the best way to complete the
driving of a finish nail is with a nail set, a pointed
punch tool that you tap with a hammer to drive the
nail slightly under the wood surface. You can then
hide the nail head and hole with wood putty, if
desired.
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 Bard Nails

Brads are similar to small finish nails

but are typically thinner and weaker.
They're great for fastening thin strips of
trim or for tacking together glued wood
parts to hold them until the glue dries.
Brads may have rounded heads (like
finish nails) or small flat heads. Brads
are the most common type of nail used
by craft or DIY-size nail guns.
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81
BOLTS

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83
CLASSIFICATION OF BOLTS
• Anchor bolts • Plow bolts
• Carriage bolts • Roof bolts
• Elevator bolts • Shoulder bolts
• Eye bolts • Square head bolts
• Flange bolts • Step bolts
• Hanger bolts • Structural bolts
• Hex bolts • T-bolts
• J bolts • Timber bolts
• Lag bolts • Toggle bolts
• Machine bolts • U-Bolts

84
 Anchor Bolts
Description
Bolts with a threaded part in one end
and a non-threaded L shaped part on
the other. Usually found with a washer
and a nut. Made to be rust-resistant.
Application
Securing light poles, structural beams
and to fasten equipment to concrete.

85
 Carriage Bolts

Description
Fully threaded bolts with a smooth
head and a square or ribbed undercut
that prevents the bolt from turning
when tightened.
Application
Fasten metal to wood.

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 Elevator Bolts

Description
Fasteners with a thin flat or
countersunk head and a square
undercut that prevents the bolt from
turning when tightened.
Application
Elevators and conveyor systems.

87
 Eye Bolts

Description
Rod shaped fasteners with threads
on one end and bent into a loop on
another.
Application
Lifting applications such as wire and
rope in light rigging.

88
 Flange Bolts

Description
Washer on the underside of a hex head.
Helps in distribution of force from the
bearing load. Also referred to as frame
bolts.
Application
Frame applications such as truck and bed
frames.

89
 Hanger Bolts

Description
Does not come with a bolt head. Both
ends of the bolt are threaded. One of
the ends is in the shape of a wood
screw.
Application
In overhead applications and fastening
metal to wood.

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 Hex Bolts

Description
Bolts that are fully or partially threaded
with six-sided heads.
Application
Broad range of use such as construction
and repair of bridges, docks, highway
elements and buildings.

91
 J Bolts

Description
Shaped like the letter J. Non curved section
is threaded.
Application
Structural applications such as fastening
walls to concrete.

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 Lag Bolts

Description
One of the toughest fasteners. Creates its
own thread when it penetrates wood and
other soft material.
Application
Connect heavy materials that are bearing
extreme loads.

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Machine Bolts

Description
Square heads paired with a semi-
cone point and a fully threaded
shaft.
Application
Fastens wood to wood, wood to
metal and metal to metal. Also
found in general hardware use.

94
 Plow Bolts
Description
Similar to carriage bolts. Contains a
countersunk flat head followed by a
square undercut and a threaded shaft.
Application
Used in applications where top surface
of where bolt is fastened to, needs to be
smooth. Used in manufacture of plow in
early days.

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 Roof Bolts

Description
Made of a shaft that is to be placed
in a pre-drilled hole.
Application
Tunneling and underground mining.
Provides support to the roof.

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Shoulder Bolts

Description
Also known as shoulder screws.
Consist of a long unthreaded,
cylindrical shank that helps rotation of
attached moving parts.
Application
Pulleys, moving engine parts and
mechanical assemblies, gears and
rolling wheels.
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 Square Head Bolts

Description
Consists of a square head, followed by a smooth
shank and a machine screw thread. Can also be
fully threaded with the absence of a smooth
shank. Design of the head facilitates easier
wrench grip when tightening.
Application
Securing light poles, structural beams and to
fasten equipment to concrete.

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 Step Bolts

Description
Shank may be plain or textured.
High strength, threaded bolts.
Application
Used as steps for climbing on steel
communication and electrical
transmission towers.

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 Structural Bolts

Description
Are similar to the standard hex head
bolts but have shorter thread lengths,
in order to be used in structural
applications.
Application
In all types of structural connections.

100
 T-Bolts

Description
Has a T shaped head in order to be held
by a wrench or to be easily fixed in
place. Provides a long lasting
connection.
Application
Use in buildings, instruments, furniture,
automobiles, etc.

101
 Timber Bolts

Description
Sometimes referred to as mushroom head
bolts or dome head bolts.
Application
Treated lumber, marine applications and
wood construction.

102
 Togger Bolts

Description
Sometimes referred to as a butterfly
anchor. Full threaded shafts with a nut
in the shape of an expanding wing.
Application
Hanging heavy elements in plaster and
drywall.

103
 U-Bolts

Description
Shaped like the letter U. Threaded on both
ends and non-threaded in curved section.
Application
Primary use to support pipework,
especially pipes via which liquids and
gases flow.

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 R IF T BO LTS &
D
DOWELS

105
 Drift Bolts
Drift bolts, and drift pins are mostly used for lateral
connections in glue-laminated or heavy timber construction.
They transmit forces through single shear(two members) or
double shear(three members) connections. They develop
moderately high lateral strength through an interaction of
wood bearing and bolt bending. Beam-to beam, beam-to-
column, beam-to-wall, and column-to-foundation are typical
bolted connections in building construction. Beam-to-cap or
still beam, and pile cap-to-pile are typical drift bolt or pin
connections in bridge or cribbing construction.
106
 Dowels
A dowel is a cylindrical rod, usually made from wood,
plastic, or metal. In its original manufactured form, a dowel is
called a dowel rod. Dowel rods are often cut into short
lengths called dowel pins. Dowels are commonly used as
structural reinforcements in cabinet making and in numerous
other applications, including:
1. Furniture shelf supports
2. Moveable game pieces (i.e. pegs)
3. Hangers for items such as clothing, key rings, and tools
4. Wheel axles in toys
5. Detents in gymnastics grips
6. Supports for tiered wedding cakes

107
SCREW

108
109
 WHAT TYPES OF
SCREWS SHOULD YOU
USE IN YOUR
PROJECTS?
For woodworking you can narrow it down to just a few
choices. Here are my bottom line recommendations; the
best screws for woodworkers.

110
1. I highly recommend using premium or multi-purpose screws,
such as Spax, GRK or Hillman.

111
2. Get flat headed screws, the ones with the tapered heads
for countersinking.

112
 3. If you can, use square or star drives. They work better and will save you a lot
of frustration.
SQUARE (ROBERTSON) DRIVES
Square drives are a huge improvement! They are
also called Robertson screws and are most
common in Canada. They are definitely harder to
find in the U.S. Their square shape greatly
reduces, almost eliminating cam-out and driver
slipping. Here in the U.S. you will mostly find
these in pocket screws.
STAR (TORX) DRIVE
Star drive screws are becoming more and more
common in the U.S. and are my absolute
favorite type of drive. The star shape virtually
eliminates cam-out and the driver almost never
slips out. Plus they can accommodate a lot of
torque. Usually they are sold on premium
quality screws that won’t snap if tightened too
much. And when you buy a box, it usually
comes with the driver tip you need.
113
4. The most common screws I use and like to keep on hand at all times in my shop
are #8 1-¼” star head screws.

114
 PARTS OF A SCREW

o The Tip
o The Shank
o The Threads
o The Head

115
 TYPES OF SCREWS
o STANDARD WOOD SCREWS
o DRYWALL SCREWS
o MULTI-PURPOSE (PRODUCTION) SCREWS
o DECK SCREWS
o STAINLESS STEEL SCREW
o POCKET SCREW
o MACHINE SCREWS
o SHEET METAL SCREW

116
 STANDARD WOOD SCREWS

Wood screws are widely available in all home

centers and hardware stores and are designed
to join two pieces of wood together. They are
threaded part of the way and then have a
smooth shank at the top. This helps hold the
screws in place. They are relatively
inexpensive and come an all kinds of
diameters and head shapes. You will usually
want to use the ones with the tapered heads.
Unfortunately, in the U.S., most woodscrews
are still only available with Phillips heads
instead of star or square drives.

117
 DRYWALL SCREWS
A lot of woodworkers use drywall screws, mostly for
shop projects and jigs. They are inexpensive, usually
cheaper than wood screws and easy to find just
about anywhere. They have thinner shanks than
wood screws, usually about equal to a #6 screw and
threads that run the entire length of the screw.
Because of their thinness they are really brittle.
Especially if you are drilling into hardwood, they are
really prone to snapping, but I’ve had this frustrating
experience with using them for 2x4s too. Like wood
screws, in the U.S. the heads are almost always
Phillips. Also, the heads have a bugle shape to
reduce tearing the paper on drywall. They don’t
match the beveled shape of a countersink. In
general, I don’t recommend using drywall screws for
woodworking projects.
118
WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A DRYWALL
SCREW AND A WOOD SCREW?

119
 MULTI-PURPOSE (PRODUCTION) SCREWS

Production or Multi-purpose screws are my absolute favorite types of

screws. Common brands include Spax or GRK. These screws are made
with hardened steel and are incredibly strong. I don’t think I’ve ever
had any break. They have self-drilling points that eliminate the need
for a pilot hole, but I would still pre-drill for critical pieces. Especially
near the ends of boards to prevent splitting.
The best part is that they come in star or square drives so your driver
stays in place and won’t slip out like with Phillips. Plus, when you buy
a box, it comes with a driver bit. There is really only a single drawback
to using these: they are expensive. Maybe twice as much as regular
wood screws.  And while my Mere Mortals philosophy is always to be
frugal, this is one instance where I believe it’s worth spending the extra
money. The amount of time and frustration these types of screws save
is enormous.
If you’ve never used multi-purpose or Spax screws, just get one box
and try them out. I guarantee, you will wonder why you didn’t try them
sooner!

120
 DECK SCREWS
If you are building outdoor
projects, use deck screws. They
are made of hardened steel and
have a corrosion resistant coating.

121
 STAINLESS STEEL SCREW

For even better corrosion resistance,

especially on boats and in salty marine
environments, you can use stainless steel
screws. While they offer the best protection
from the weather, they are not as strong as
deck screws and are very expensive.

122
 POCKET SCREW

Pocket screws are self drilling and have a

wide head that grabs the flat shoulder made
by drilling pocket holes. If you use regular
wood screws with pocket holes, they may
drive all the way through, or possibly split
the wood. I use the Kreg pocket screws, but
you might be able to substitute pan head
screws. The Kreg screws have a square
drive which makes them really easy to seat.
Watch my pocket hole basics video to learn
a lot more about pocket hole joinery.

123
 MACHINE SCREWS

Machine screws have no points and

are intended to use in holes that are
already tapped or with a nut. They are
threaded along the entire shaft are
sold in threads per inch. When you
buy them, make sure the nuts’ threads
match. You may occasionally need
machine screws to fasten a couple
boards together, but they aren’t
common in woodworking.

124
 SHEET METAL SCREW

Usually, sheet metal screws are tiny

with a sharp point intended for
piercing and driving into sheet metal.
Think of heating ducts for instance.
They usually have pan heads and will
probably work as a wood screw if you
need a substitute.

125
PLATE
WASHER

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 The Purpose of Washers and Why They’re Used With Fasteners

LOAD DISTRIBUTION
 The primary purpose of most washers is to evenly distribute the load of the threaded fastener with
which they are used. Threaded fasteners stress the material in which they are driven. Driving a screw
into wood, for example, may cause the wood to crack around the surface. Washers reduce the risk of
such damage by evenly distributing the fastener’s load across the surface of the material. Not all
materials require the use of washers. But for wood and other relatively soft materials, washers are useful
to protect against stress-related damage when the threaded fastener is driven into the material.
SPACING
 Washers can also be used as spacers. Why would you even need a spacer when driving a threaded
fastener into an object? If the threaded fastener is longer than the depth of the object, you won’t be able
to drive it all the way into the object — not without having some of the fastener stick out the back of the
object, at least. Driving a 4-inch screw into an object that’s 3 inches deep will result in 1 inch of the
screw’s tip protruding out of the back of the object. A simple solution to this problem is to use washers.
Placing washers through the threaded fastener before driving it into the object creates padding so that the
fastener doesn’t go too deep.
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VIBRATION ABSORPTION
 Certain types of washers are designed to absorb vibrations. Known as
vibration damping or vibration isolating washers, they usually aren’t
made of metal. Instead, they are made of a softer material like plastic,
rubber or urethane. Softer materials such as these are more effective at
absorbing vibrations than hard materials, including metal. If a threaded
fastener is being used to connect two objects, and one of those objects
producing vibrates aggressively, using vibration damping washers can
protect the other object from damage.
LIQUID PROTECTION
 Other types of washers prevent the ingress of water and liquids. They are
often used in water pipes and connections to create a waterproof seal.
Like vibration damping washers, liquid-sealing washers are made of a soft
material that’s able to press completely against the surface of the object.

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 Rib Washer
Rib washers have a trapezoidal cross
section for a better grip and come in the
form of disc springs. These washers from
ITA Fasteners are easy to work with and
can be quickly fastened to sheet metal
surfaces to distribute the load. They
ensure that other fasteners placed on the
support structure are not loosened. Due
to the vibrations caused by the tightening
of bolts, the serrations go into the mating
faces of the washer and prevent the
fasteners from loosening.
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 Malleable Iron Washer
Malleable cast iron round washers
are used in dock and wood
construction. These oversized
washers have a large bearing
surface designed to prevent bolt
heads and nuts from pulling into
the wood.

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 Square Steel Plate Washer
Square plate washers are made from low
carbon steel and have a larger surface area
than round washers. Since they develop
more friction when tightened against wood,
this type of washer is specified for seismic
applications. They are often found in timber
construction. Stock sizes are available for
bolts from 1/2″ to 1″, with thickness of .
195″ up to .395″. For the best corrosion
resistance, hot-dip galvanized plates are
recommended. Complete dimensions are
provided below.

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 Ogee Washer
Ogee refers to the curved shape of
this large, cast iron washer which is
typically used in dock and wood
construction. These oversized
washers have a large bearing
surface designed to prevent bolt
heads and nuts from pulling into
the wood. ASTM A48 covers Gray
Iron Castings, including ogee
washers.

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134
 JOINERY

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136
 Joinery
Joinery is a part of woodworking that involves joining together pieces of
wood or lumber, to produce more complex items. Some wood joints employ
fasteners, bindings, or adhesives, while others use only wood elements.
The characteristics of wooden joints - strength, flexibility, toughness,
appearance, etc. - derive from the properties of the materials involved and
the purpose of the joint. Therefore, different joinery techniques are used to
meet differing requirements. For example, the joinery used to construct a
house can be different from that used to make puzzle toys, although some
concepts overlap. In British English usage it is distinguished from
carpentry which relates to structural timber work.

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Basic Butt Joint
● A butt joint is a technique in which two pieces of
material are joined by simply placing their ends
together without any special shaping. The name
'butt joint' comes from the way the material is
joined together. The butt joint is the simplest joint
to make since it merely involves cutting the wood
to the appropriate length and butting them together.
It is also the weakest because unless some form of
reinforcement is used (see below) it relies upon
glue alone to hold it together. Because the
orientation of the wood usually presents only one
end to a long grain gluing surface, the resulting
joint is inherently weak.
Mitered Butt Joint
● Miter joints are made by joining two pieces of wood
with the ends cut at an angle. When a workpiece is
square or rectangular, the two mating pieces are cut at 45
degrees on the ends, so that when butted together they
form a perfect 90-degree angle. However, with an
irregular shaped workpiece that has a non-rectangular
shape, the miters can be cut at different angles. For
example, an eight-sided picture frame will have eight
angles of 45 degrees each, with each segment of the
frame mitered at 22 1/2 degrees. A five-sided picture
frame, on the other hand, will have five angles of 72
degrees each, with each segment of the frame mitered at
36 degrees.
Half-Lap Joint
● Half-lap joints do reveal end grain on
both sides of the joint, so avoid using the
joint where such an appearance proves
objectionable. We often use half-laps for
shop-cabinet door frames, workbench leg
frames, outdoor furniture, and internal
web frames for furniture such as dressers.
● You need only a tablesaw or radial-arm
saw to make a half-lap. We prefer to use a
dado set for fast and smooth results.
Tongue and Groove Joint
● Tongue and groove is a method of fitting similar objects together, edge
to edge, used mainly with wood, in flooring, parquetry, panelling, and
similar constructions. Tongue and groove joints allow two flat pieces to
be joined strongly together to make a single flat surface.
Before plywood became common, tongue and groove boards were also
used for sheathing buildings and to construct concrete formwork.
● A strong joint, the tongue and groove joint is widely used for re-entrant
angles. The effect of wood shrinkage is concealed when the joint is
beaded or otherwise moulded. In expensive cabinet work,
glued dovetail and multiple tongue and groove are used.
● Each piece has a slot (the groove) cut all along one edge, and a thin,
deep ridge (the tongue) on the opposite edge. The tongue projects a
little less than the depth of the groove. Two or more pieces thus fit
together closely. The joint is not normally glued, as shrinkage would
then pull the tongue off.
Mortise and Tenon Joint
● A mortise (occasionally mortice) and tenon joint connects two pieces of
wood or of material. Woodworkers around the world have used it for
thousands of years to join pieces of wood, mainly when the adjoining
pieces connect at right angles.
● Mortise and tenon joints are strong and stable joints that can be used in
many projects. The mortise and tenon joint is considered to be one of the
strongest joints next to the common dovetail joint.[citation needed] They
furnish a strong outcome and connect by either gluing or locking into
place. The mortise and tenon joint also gives an attractive lookout. One
drawback to this joint is the difficulty in making it due to the precise and
tight cutting required. In its most basic form, a mortise and tenon joint is
both simple and strong. There are many variations of this type of joint,
but the basic mortise and tenon has two components:
● the mortise hole, and
● the tenon tongue.
Biscuit Joint
● biscuit joints are easy to mark out and quick to cut, using one
almost seems like cheating. In truth, biscuits may not be as
strong as some traditional types of joinery and may not be
suitable for heavy-duty loads, but they’re perfect for plenty of
projects. Woodworkers and carpenters have been employing
biscuits to successfully solve all sorts of assembly and
alignment problems for over two decades. The easiest way to
appreciate their versatility and strengths is by putting them to
use.
● The safest way to cut biscuit slots is with a biscuit joiner. This
tool is designed to do nothing but plunge-cut arc-shaped slots.
(Unlike the router/biscuit-cutting bit combo, the biscuit
joiner’s cutter retracts inside the tool as you pull it away from
your work.) From there, a flat, football-shaped piece of
compressed wood, called a biscuit, fits into a pair of matching
slots. 
Pocket Joint
● Pocket-hole joinery, or pocket-screw joinery, involves
drilling a hole at an angle — usually 15 degrees — into one
work piece, and then joining it to a second work piece with
a self-tapping screw.
● Pocket holes can be formed by drilling a series of holes
until a pocket hole is created, but pocket hole jigs make the
process much quicker and easier. Pocket hole jigs allow the
user to drill a hole at an accurate angle to get a good joint.
Using a pocket hole jig also makes for a cleaner and neater
appearance as opposed to creating a pocket hole without
the help of a jig. A pocket hole jig is generally made of
plastic and has a metal insert that the drill bit is inserted
through to drill the hole. A jig can be a stationary device
that the wooden pieces are clamped into, or a portable
device that is clamped onto the wooden pieces.
Dado
● A dado (US and Canada), housing (UK) or trench (Europe) is a slot
or trench cut into the surface of a piece of machinable material,
usually wood. When viewed in cross-section, a dado has three sides.
A dado is cut across, or perpendicular to, the grain and is thus
differentiated from a groove which is cut with, or parallel to the
grain. Dados are often used to affix shelves to cabinetry carcasses.
Similar to the dado, see rabbet (rebate).
● A through dado involves cuts which run between both edges of the
surface, leaving both ends open.
● A stopped or blind dado ends before one or both of the cuts meets the
edge of the surface.
● A half dado is formed with a narrow dado cut into one part, coupled
with a rabbet of another piece. This joint tends to be used because of
its ability to hide unattractive gaps due to varying material
thicknesses.
Rabbet
● A rabbet (American English) or rebate (British English) is a recess or
groove cut into the edge of a piece of machinable material, usually
wood. When viewed in cross-section, a rabbet is two-sided and open
to the edge or end of the surface into which it is cut.
● An example of the use of a rabbet is in a glazing bar where it makes
provision for the insertion of the pane of glass and putty. It may also
accommodate the edge of the back panel of a cabinet. It is also used
in door and casement window jambs, and for shiplap planking. A
rabbet can be used to form a joint with another piece of wood (often
containing a dado).
● Rebate joints are easy to construct and have good appeal to them.
They are simple to use in carpentry based work but can be doubtful
when it comes to the strength of the joint. Nails and screws can be
added to help increase the overall strength.
Through Dovetail Joint
● The image at the top of this page shows a 'through
dovetail' (also known as 'plain dovetail') joint,
where the end grain of both boards is visible when
the joint is assembled. Through dovetails are
common in carcass and box construction.
Traditionally, the dovetails would have often been
covered by a veneer. However, dovetails have
become a signature of craftsmanship and are
generally considered a feature, so they are rarely
concealed in contemporary work. When used in
drawer construction, a through (or blind, mitred,
or lapped) dovetail joint is sometimes referred to
as an "English dovetail."
Sliding Dovetail
● A dovetail joint or simply dovetail is a joinery
technique most commonly used in
woodworking joinery (carpentry), including
furniture, cabinets, log buildings, and traditional
timber framing. Noted for its resistance to being
pulled apart (tensile strength), the dovetail joint
is commonly used to join the sides of a drawer
to the front. A series of 'pins' cut to extend from
the end of one board interlock with a series of
'tails' cut into the end of another board. The pins
and tails have a trapezoidal shape. Once glued, a
wooden dovetail joint requires no mechanical
fasteners.
Box Joint
● A box joint, is a woodworking joint made by
cutting a set of complementary, interlocking
profiles in two pieces of wood, which are
then joined (usually) at right angles, usually
glued. The glued box joint has a high glued
surface area resulting in a strong bond, on a
similar principle to a finger joint. Box joints
are used for corners of boxes or box-like
constructions, hence the name. The joint does
not have the same interlocking properties as a
dovetail joint, but is much simpler to make,
and can be mass-produced fairly easily.
 The Joint my be classified according to the nature
of the stresses they are to resist such as:
● Compression
● Tension
● Bending
● Compression and Tension
● Tension and Bending
 STAIRS

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Stairs -is any step included as part of series leading to a different floor or level.

Staircase - is a structure unto itself that holds a series of stairs.

Tread - horizontal face of a step.
Riser - Vertical face of a step.

Soffit - underside of the stair

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Handrail - protective bar placed at a convenient distance above the stairs for a
handhold.

Bearers - a support for winders wedged into the walls secured by the stringers
Carriage - portion that supporting the steps of a wooden stairs

Close string - A staircase without open newel in a dog stairs

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Hollow newel - an opening in the middle of a staircase as distinguished from a solid newel where
in the ends of the steps are attached
 

Housing - the notches in the string board of a stair for the reception of stairs
 

Knee - is a convex bend at the back of the handrail

 

Landing - is that horizontal floor as resting place in a flight

 

Newel - the central column where the steps of circular staircase wind
 

Nosing - is the front edge of the step that project beyond the riser

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155
156
Balustrade - A railing composed of balusters Cockel Stairs - A term given to a
capped by a handrail winding staircase.

157
Circular stair - A staircase with steps winding in a Baluster - vertical member supporting
circle or cylinder. the handrail

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Curve out - A concave curve on the face of a front string.

Curtail step - The first step which the stair is ascended, terminating at the end of a form
of a scroll following the plan of the handrail.

Elliptical Stair - Those elliptical in plan where each tread assembly converging in a
elliptical ring in a plan.

Face mould - A section produced of any inclined plane vertically over a curved plan of a
handrail
 
Flight of a stair - the series of steps from one landing to another
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Front string - the strings on the side of the stairs which handrail is placed.
 

Fillet - is a band fastened to the face of a front string below the curve extending the width
of the tread
 

Flyers - the steps in the flight which are parallel to each other
 

Geometrical stair - Is a flight of a stair supported by the wall at the end of the steps
 

Half space - is an interval between two flights in the staircase

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  Pitching piece - is a horizontal member where one end is wedged in to the wall at the top of
a flight stairs that supports the upper end of the rough stringer
 

Pitch - is the angle of inclination of the horizontal of the stairs

 

Ramp - A slope surface that rise or twist simultaneously

 

Spandril - is the angle form of the stairway

 
Stair Builder Truss - the cross beams which supports the landing of a stair

Stair Clip - A metal clip used to hold stair carpet in place

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Stairhead - The initial at the top of the flight of stair or staircase
 

Stair Headroom - the clear vertical height measured from the nosing of a stair to any overhead
construction
 
Stair Turret - a building containing a winding stair that usually fills it entirely. A stair enclosure
which projects beyond the building roof
 

Stair well - the vertical shaft containing the staircase

Straight flight of stairs - one having the steps parallel and at the right angle to the strings

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Steps - a assembly consisting a tread and a riser
 

Step - a stair consisting one tread and one riser

 

Scroll - the bottom step with the front end sloped to receive

String - the part of the flight of stairs that forms its ceiling or soffit

Tread length - the dimension of the tread measured perpendicular to the normal line travel
of a stair

Tread Plate - a metal fabricated floor plate

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Tread return - in an open stair, the continuation of the horizontal round edge of the tread beyond of
the stair stringer
 
Tread runs - the horizontal distance between two consecutive riser
 
Tread width - the dimension of the tread and the projection of nosing if any
 
Wall string - the board place against the wall to receive the end of the step
 
Well - the place occupied by the flight of stairs

Well hole - the opening in floor at the top of a flight of stairs

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Well staircase - a winding staircase enclosed by wall resembling a well
 
Winders - steps are not parallel with each other
 
Wreath - the whole of a helically curved handrail
 

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 LAYING OUT THE
STAIRS
Before making the staircase layout, the planner must
prepare a scaled cross sectional drawing of the proposal
stair composing the stringer, tread, riser, the run and the
rise. The number of steps shall be determined in the
drafting table to avoid corrections and adjustments of the
rise and run during the actual construction.

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   FORMULA: L =
The methods of laying out a stair is enumerated as follows:
1. Determine the clear height of the rise in meter. Normally the rise per step
is 17 to 18 centimeters and the minimum tread width is 25 centimeters.
2. Divide the rise height in meters by 17 or 18 to determine the number of
the steps. There should be no fractional value.
3. If the result found in step 2 it say 11.5, it simple mean that you will have
11.5 steps which is not right.
4. Adjust 11.5 to a whole number 11 or 12 to be the trial divisor.
5. Divide the rise by the 11 and 12 to determine the height per rise of each
step.
6. Chose the number of step which will not be less than 17 cm nor more than
19 cm for an ideal stair.
 TYPE OF STRINGERS
Cut Stringers – is commonly used in most modern and
contemporary building designs.

Cleated Stringer – is used for a very rough work.

Rabbeted Stringer – is adopted on a fine work and is

usually made at the mill. The risers and treads are held in
the rabbets by wedges set in by glue.
 Handrails and Balusters

Handrails and Balusters – has multiplicity of design. They

are made of either wood, metal or combination thereof. In either
type or form, the best handrails and balusters are those that were
prefabricated in the wood or metal craft. They are precision made
and easily assembled on site. The curved portion of the handrail
located at the end or change of flight presents difficulty to the
carpenter.
Simplified Methods on Building Construction
These particular parts are best made in the mill or wood-craft
where the band saw or jig saw is used to form the wreath or the
ramp.

TABLE 4.4 HEIGHTS OF RISE AND LENGTH OF

THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING!

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