Introduction to Semiconductors for Solar

PV Cells

C. S. Solanki
Energy Systems Engineering, IIT Bombay

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 PV as source of energy
• PV solar electricity is decentralized in nature, useful for
overall development
•Solar PV is modular, size can be added any time
• In many countries grid parity will be achieved soon
• It is feasible to fulfill all our energy requirement using solar
PV
• One can use solar PV in stand alone and centralized
generation manner

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 Worldwide P V modules production

Annual production GWp/Year

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PV module production in 2010-11 was about 1000 MW
 Generations of Solar PV
Past, present and future

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 Photovoltaics generations
1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation

?
-Abundant
-Abundant, material
non-toxic - Low - Low
material, material
material cost
-Reasonable cost,
- Low eff. - High eff.
eff., high cost
Gen-1 + Gen-2

• Si based • a-Si/CdTe/CIGS
• Low material cost • Target much
• Mature technology
lower cost by high
• High material cost • stability, resources efficiency
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Photovoltaic generations: 1st, 2nd & 3rd
US$0.10/W US$0.20/W US$0.50/W
100

80

60
Efficiency, %

US$1.0/W
III
40

20 I US$3.50/W
II

0 100 200 300 400 500

Cost, US$/m2 Ref: M.A Green, Progress In
Photovoltaics, 9 (2000) 123.

1st generation: Si wafer based technologies

2nd generation: Thin-film technologies
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3rd generation: Advanced nanostructure based concepts
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 Production Cost and Efficiency
• The most important parameter for a customer is the cost of
a PV module, normally in Rs/Wp

Rs / m2
Price of Module (Rs/Wp) =
Wp / m2

Production Cost
Price of Module (Rs/Wp) =
Efficiency

 Both efficiency and production cost is important in

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reducing the PV modules cost
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 C-Si solar cell technologies

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All these technologies are commercially available 8
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 Thin film solar cell technologies

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 Challenges to PV technology

• High cost per unit watt (high cost of material)

• Moderate efficiencies

• Availability of material

• Long term stability

• Long energy pay back period (high processing cost)

• Long money pay back period

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 Which materials can be
used for solar cells?
Metal, semiconductor or insulators?
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 What solar cell should do?
• Solar cell should generate voltage or potential
(which can drive current through a load)

• The potential is said to be developed when a positive

charge is separated by negative charge in space

V
+ -

• A solar cell must first generate positive and negative

charge carriers and then it must separate them

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 •Principle of solar thermal energy conversion
(light to heat conversion)

Energy
Continuous band
gap
Space
•Principle of solar PV energy conversion
(light to photo-voltage conversion)
Separation of opposite
charges results in
potential difference

Energy Separated band gap

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 Semiconductors
• Elemental semiconductor

Part of periodic table

II III IV V VI
B C(6)
Al Si(14) P S
Zn Ga Ge(32) As Se
Cd In Sb Te

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 Compound semiconductors
• Elemental semiconductors: Si, Ge
• Compound semiconductors: GaAs, InP
• Ternary semiconductors: AlGaAs, HgCdTe
• Quaternary semiconductors: InGaAsP, InGaAlP

Elemental IV Binary III-V Binary II-VI

Compounds
Si SiGe AlP CdTe
Ge SiC GaAs CdS
As InP ZnS
GaP CdSe
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 Material Parameters of importance

• Structure (atomic arrangement)

• Band gap
• Absorption

• Ease of fabrication
• Temperature of fabrication
• High throughput

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 Material Structure
Amorphous Passivated amorphous
Micro-crystalline

Multi-crystalline Mono-crystalline
Thin films are deposited on
substrate – material is
amorphous, micro-crystalline and
at best multi-crystalline
Mono- and micro-crystalline Si is
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 Material Structure

 Structural arrangement of atoms in material affects:

 Optical properties (band gap, absorption)
 Electrical properties (conductivity, mobility)

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 Band Gap of Semiconductors

What is ideal band gap for

materials used for solar cells?

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 Single Atom-1
• Energy of an electron in an
atom is quantized.

• Quantized levels are knows as

orbits. Electron can go from
higher energy orbit to lower
energy orbit by loosing energy
or vice-versa by gaining
energy.

• energy of an atomic electron

depends not only on its orbital
location, but on angular
momentum, orientation, and
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spin as well.
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 Many atoms-1
•Electron
•When atoms are
energy
brought together to
form a solid
various interaction
occurs between
the atom.

•One atom •Two •Many atoms •Splitting of energy

atoms in a crystal levels occurs due
the Pauli’s
Exclusion Principle
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 Formation of energy bands

Electron
energy

One atom Two atoms Many atoms in a

crystal
Energy
Electron •4N empty band
Energy states

•2N+2N •∫∫ p
•filled states Eg
•∫∫ s

•∫∫
Inter atomic distance
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Si lattice spacing Isolated
atoms
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 Energy band model
Energy

Conduction
band
Ec
Ec
Eg Eg

Ev Ev
Valence
band
Distance

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 Energy-momentum diagram

 High absorption probability  Low absorption probability

 Thinner material is required  Thicker material is required
•The direct and indirect band gap behavior is reflected in absorption
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coefficients
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 Direct and indirect semiconductor

•Direct band gap – one step excitation process,

higher probability of absorption
•  Higher material requirement

•Indirect band gap – two step excitation process,

lower probability of absorption
 Lower material requirement

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 Band gaps of materials
a-S-Hi
GaAs
CdTe

c-Si CIGS
1.7 eV
1.42 1.45
1.12 1.1 eV eV eV
eV

1.05 to 1.5 1.05 to 1.5 0.5 to 2.5 eV 1.1 to 1.8 eV

eV eV

 Band gap of bulk c-Si material (mono, multi, ribbon) is fixed

 Band gaps of thin film compound semiconductors are tunable

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 Electromagnetic spectrum
• What is light or radiation? Electro-magnetic waves

E  hv
1.24
E eV
www.wikipedia.org  (  m)
• Energy, frequency and wavelength are related (E-Energy, -
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frequency, and -wavelength)
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 Interaction of radiation with matter

Microwave and Visible energy

infrared energy radiation (up to 3.5 UV and X-ray
radiation, <1.5 eV) eV) radiation (>3.5eV)

Effect- Bond Effect- excitation of Effect- Ionization

rotation, torsion, electrons to higher of atoms
vibration energy levels
• For interaction to take place – energy level of radiation should
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be in the range of energy required for given event
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 Some other parameters for cells
 Important parameters from perspective of technology
choice

Rs / m2
Price of Module (Rs/Wp) =
Wp / m2

Energy
Price of modules Production cost cost

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Energy yield efficiency
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 Material Properties

Optical Properties Electrical Properties

― Band gap (direct, indirect) ― Carrier lifetime

― Absorption Coefficient ― Mobility

― Absorption length ― Diffusion length

Manufacturing  Performance

― Absorber material ― Efficiency

― Cells ― Current, Voltage and FF

― Effect of temperature and
― Modules
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 Thank you for your
attention
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