Effects of Earthquakes

on structures
Seismic damage
Structural damage due to an earthquake is not solely a
function of the earthquake ground motion. The primary
factors affecting the extent of damage are
Earthquake characteristics, such as (a)peak ground
acceleration, (b)duration of strong shaking, (c )frequency
(d)length of fault rupture.
Site characteristics, such as (a)distance between the
epicenter and the structure, (b)geology between the
epicenter and structure, (c ) soil conditions at the site,
(d)natural period of the site.
Structural characteristics, such as (a) natural period
and damping of the structure, (b) age and construction
method of the structure, (c ) seismic provision
(i.e.detailing) included in the design
 Seismic risk zones
In order to design a structure to withstand the effects
of an earthquake, it is necessary to determine the
expected earthquake magnitude.

While extensive mathematical models could be

developed for each location, seismic codes have
evolved a simplified model based on seismic zones. This
model is based on the seismic probability.

There are several methods of evaluating the seismic

risk zones. One method is correlate the zones with the
approximate accelerations and magnitudes.
Approximate code maximum zone,
acceleration and magnitude
Zone Maximum Maximum
acceleration magnitude
0 0.04 g 4.25
1 0.08 g 4.75
2 0.16 g 5.75
3 (not near a great fault) 0.33 g 7.00
4 (near a great fault) 0.50 g 8.5

Another interpretation of the zones is to correlate them

to the effects of an earthquake and the modified
Mercalli intensity scale.
 Effects of an earthquake by zone

Zone Effect

0 No damage
1 Minor damage corresponding to MM intensities
V and VI; distant earthquakes may damage
structures with fundamental periods greater
than 1.0 s
2 Moderate damage corresponding to MM
intensity VII
3 Major damage corresponding to MM intensity
VIII and higher
4 Same as zone 3
 Risk microzones
Certain limited areas which consistently experience
higher ground accelerations than do surrounding areas
are known as microzones.
 This tendency is primarily attributed to the site
conditions in the microzone, frequency and duration of
strong motion.
Since the seismic damage is partially related to ground
acceleration, knowledge of such microzonification is
essential.
Microzonification is widely proposed. For example,
unreinforced buildings in Chinatown were not damaged,
while similarly constructed buildings in Marina district
were. Portions of the Cypress structure on clay
collapsed, but other portions built on firmer soil did not.
 Probable and credible earthquake
ground motions
A maximum probable earthquake ground motion at a
Site is the largest earthquake shaking that has a
Significant probability of occuring within the lifetime of a
Structure due to earthquakes from all sources.

The maximum credible(able to be believed or good enough to be effective)

earthquake ground motion at a site is the maximum
possible earthquake ground motion based on available
knowledge of the building site Location. The maximum
credible earthquake is difficult to evaluate. However,
energy requirements seem to limit the maximum
worldwide Richter magnitude to 9.0 or less.
 Effective peak ground acceleration
The effective peak ground acceleration, EPA is the
maximum acceleration to which a building responds (i.e.
produces an increase in response). As a code
provisions, EPA depends on the region.
The EPA is derived from the log-tripartite graph Given
in ATC 3-06 scaled downward from the spectral
acceleration by dividing it by a spectral amplification
Factor.
The value of the spectral amplification factor Depends
on the amount of damping present in the Building and
the probability of the earthquake’s Occurrence.
For example, for 5% damping and a Hazard level
(probability of occurrence) of 10% in a 50-year period,
the spectral amplification factor is 2.5.
Effective peak ground acceleration(contd…)

The method of deriving the EPA is subject to

Continuing study and analysis. In general, EPA is
usually somewhat less than the PGA.
 Site period
The site(soil) period is recognized as a significant
factor contributing to structural damage.

When a site has a natural frequency of vibration that

corresponds to the predominant earthquake frequency,
site movement can be greatly magnified. This is known
as resonance.
Thus, the buildings can experience ground motion
much greater than would be predicted from only the
seismic energy release.
 Site period(contd…)
Determining the actual site period is no easy matter.
Since the site period can be computed precisely from
widely available formulas and still be grossly inaccurate.
Such determination are best left to experts familiar with
the area.

Other soil characteristics, including density, bearing

strength, Moisture content, compressibility (i.e.,
tendency to settle), and Sensitivity (i.e., tendency to
liquefy), are additional factors not addressed by the
seismic code, but must be considered In structural
design.
 Soil liquefaction

Liquefaction occurs in soils, particularly in soils of

Saturated cohesionless particles such as sand, and is a
Sudden drop in shear strength. This drops the bearing
Capacity of the soil. In soil liquefaction, the soil turns into
a liquid, allowing everything it previously supported to
sink.
Continued cycles of reversed shear in saturated sand
Can cause pore water pressure to increase, which in turn
Decreases the effective stress and shear strength. When
The shear strength drops to zero, the sand liquefies.
Sand boils that erupted during the 2011 Christchurch earthquake
Some effects of liquefaction during the 1964 Niigata earthquake
The effect of liquefaction in Christchurch, New Zealand, during the
Mw 6.3 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake
Liquefaction allowed this sewer to float upward – 2004 Chuetsu earthquake
Soil liquefaction(contd…)
Conditions most likely to contribute to or indicate a
Potential for liquefaction include

(1) a lightly loaded sand layer within 15 to 20 m of the

surface.

(2) Uniform particles of medium size.

(3) a saturated condition below a water table

(4) A low penetration test value.

 Building period
When a lightly damped building is displaced laterally by
an earthquake, wind or other force, it will oscillate back
and forth with a regular period.

The natural period of modern buildings can seldom, if

ever, be calculated from simple vibrational theory. Four
methods can be used when knowledge of a building
period is needed
 Building period
(1)Analytical models based on finite element analysis
and other modelling techniques can be used.

(2) A scale model of the building can be constructed and

the natural period extrapolated from measurements
on the model.(This is seldom done however)

(3) If the building has been constructed, actual

measurements can be taken

(4) Empirical relationships can be used

 Spectral characteristics
Despite some inherent regularity, earthquake
seisgrams are quite noisy. It is difficult to determine how
a building behaves at all times during an earthquake
consisting of many random pulses.
It is also unnecessary in many cases to know the
entire time history response of the building, since the
maximum seismic force on (and, hence, damage in) a
structure depends partially on the effective peak
acceleration experienced, not on lower accelerations
that might have occurred during the earthquake.
 Spectral characteristics(contd…)
The maximum building acceleration is typically higher
than the ground acceleration.
The ratio of building to ground acceleration depends
on the building period.
For infinitely stiff building (with zero natural period), the
ratio is 1.
The spectral acceleration from typical California
design earthquakes for a 10% damped building located
on rocks or other firm soil is approximately 2.0 to 2.5
times the peak ground acceleration.
 Spectral characteristics(contd…)
The maximum acceleration that is experienced by a
single degree of freedom vibratory system is known as
the spectral acceleration, Sa or spectral pseudo
acceleration-”pseudo” because the value does not
correspond exactly to the maximum acceleration.
Similarly, the maximum displacement and velocity are
known as the spectral displacement,Sd, and spectral
Velocity,Sv, respectively.
 Base shear
The theoretical maximum seismic force, V, on a structure
of mass m (weight W)(The total building dead
load/weight is used in the calculation of the base shear),
is known as the base shear, and is given by the
WSa
Newton’s second law (F=ma). V  mSa 
g
The spectral acceleration is sometimes given in fractions
or percentages of gravity(g) or normalized in some other
manner, equation requires the spectral acceleration to
be expressed in ft/sec2, in/sec2 or m/s2.
Relationship between spectral values
The relationship is given by
Sv Sa
Sd   2 [undamped SDOF]
 
From this equation, the spectral displacement, velocity,
And acceleration can be derived from one another if the
Natural frequency (in rad/s) of vibration, , is known.
The derivation is,for a sinusoidal position equation
x ( t )  A sin t
The first derivative (I.e., the velocity equation is
v( t )  A cos t
Whose maximum amplitude is  multiplied by the
amplitude of the position function
The second derivative (I.e., the acceleration equation is
a ( t )   A sin t
2