GE 08

LIFE AND WORKS OF RIZAL

RIZAL’S HIGHER EDUCATION
REPORTED BY: ERESE, JAMES PAUL A.
BS MECHANICAL ENGG, 3A
LESSON 2
HIGHER EDUCATION

Escuela Pia
› Charity School
› School for poor boys

ATENEO › Established in 1817 by

DE the City government

› 1859 – Spanish Jesuits
MANILA managed the school.
› Changed to ATENEO
MUNICIPAL and later
became ATENEO DE
MANILA

GE 08 The Life and Works of Rizal

LESSON 2
HIGHER EDUCATION

RIZAL ENTERS ATENEO

 June 10, 1872

ATENEO  Paciano

DE  Father Magin Ferrando

MANILA o Late for registration

o Sickly, undersized for his age

 Manuel Burgos

GE 08 The Life and Works of Rizal

LESSON 2
HIGHER EDUCATION

Jesuit System
 Considered more advanced than that of other colleges

 Discipline was rigid and its methods less mechanical

Jesuit
System of Carthaginian Vs Roman
Education
 Emperor  Centurion

 Tribune  Standard-bearer

 Decurion

GE 08 The Life and Works of Rizal

LESSON 2
HIGHER EDUCATION

1st year

 June 1872

ATENEO  Fr. Jose Bech – first professor

DE  Rizal was placed at the bottom of the class

MANILA  After the end of month, he became Emperor

 Rizal took private lessons in Santa Isabel College during noon

recesses. Paid three pesos for Spanish Lesson

GE 08 The Life and Works of Rizal

LESSON 2
HIGHER EDUCATION

1st year

 At the end of the school year he placed second

ATENEO
DE
MANILA

GE 08 The Life and Works of Rizal

LESSON 2
HIGHER EDUCATION

2nd year

 Repented because he was offended by the teachers remarks

ATENEO  He again studied harder and became emperor.

DE  At the end of the school year Rizal received excellent grades on

MANILA all subjects and a gold medal

GE 08 The Life and Works of Rizal

LESSON 2
HIGHER EDUCATION

Teenage interest in Reading

 1874 –summer vacation

ATENEO  Began to take interest in reading romantic novels

DE  The Count Monte Cristo by Alexander Dumas – first favorite novel

MANILA  Read non-fictions

 Later, Rizal read « Travels in the Philippines » by Dr. Feodor

Jagor

GE 08 The Life and Works of Rizal

LESSON 2
HIGHER EDUCATION

3rd year

 June 1874 – Junior Year

ATENEO  Not as excellent as the previous Year

DE  Remained excellent in all subjects

MANILA  Won only one medal in Latin

 Failed to win the spanish medal

 March 1875 – end of school year but no impressed by his works.

GE 08 The Life and Works of Rizal

LESSON 2
HIGHER EDUCATION

4th year

 1875-1876

ATENEO  Fr. Francisco de Paula Sanchez – one of hs professors this time.

DE Inspired Rizal to study harder and to write poetry. Described rizal

MANILA as model of rectitude, solititude, and love for students.

Considered his best professor in Ateneo

 Top student, won 5 medals

GE 08 The Life and Works of Rizal

LESSON 2
HIGHER EDUCATION

5th year

 June 1876 – returned to Manila

ATENEO  Excelled in all subject

DE  Most Brilliant Atenean of his time

MANILA  Obtained highest in all subjects

 March 23, 1877 – Commencement Day

 Received degree of Bachelor of Arts with highest honor.

GE 08 The Life and Works of Rizal

LESSON 2
HIGHER EDUCATION

Through Education The Motherland

Receives Light

Mi Primera Inspiracion
Poems and
Artistic In Memory of My Town
Works
Intimate Alliance Between Religion
and Good Education

A Farewell Dialogue of the Sstudents

GE 08 The Life and Works of Rizal

LESSON 2
HIGHER EDUCATION
Cabanero M. (2020). Chapter 4 (Part 1):
RIZAL'S HIGHER EDUCATION AND LIFE
ABROAD. Youtue Video. Retrived from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=27S3lokK-aA

Doquilo J. (2020). Doquilo, J. Topic 3. Youtue

Video. Retrieved from
Reference https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=cgTIhJr96mU

Dublin I. (2020). Life and Works of Rizal -

Education in Ateneo. Youtue Video. Retrived
from https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=27S3lokK-aA

GE 08 The Life and Works of Rizal

 GE 08

LIFE AND WORKS OF RIZAL

UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS
REPORTED BY: ECHINIQUE, IZZA MAE B.
BS MECHANICAL ENGG, 3A
University of santo tomas: medical studies

His mother Doña Teodora opposed the idea of sending Rizal to

University. However, Don Francisco allowed him to pursue higher
education in University of Santo Tomas.

Jose Rizal studied in UST to pursue higher education on April

1877 and took the course Philosophy and Letters.
• His father liked it and he was uncertain in his career.
• He remained loyal to Ateneo and pursued vocational course in
surveying.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
University of santo tomas: medical studies

Jose Rizal shifted after his first year in UST.

• He asked an advice from Father Pablo Ramon who is a
rector in Ateneo.
• He decided to pursue medicine because of his mother’s
condition.
• He opted to study ophthalmology.
• He won Literary awards and had relationships.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
University of santo tomas: medical studies

THREE MAIN REASON OF RIZAL BEING UNHAPPY:

1. The Dominican professors were hostile to him.
2. Filipino students suffered discrimination.
3. The method of instruction was obsolete and repressive.

THREE REASONS FOR HIS POOR PERFORMANCE:

4. Rizal was not satisfied with the system of education at the
university
5. There were plenty of things to distract a young man in the peak of
his youth.
6. Medicine was not Rizal’s true vocation.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
University of santo tomas: medical studies

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
University of santo tomas: medical studies

RELEVANCE:
The similarities of the youth of Jose Rizal and today can
be observed.
1. He was not sure in his plans
2. He needed an advice and pursued a career which is not
his passion
3. He became aware of the negative things and got
distracted.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
University of santo tomas: medical studies

VALUE:
1. He used his talent in writing.
2. He obeys the people he respected.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
University of santo tomas: a la juventud filipina
Hold high the brow serene
O youth, where now you stand;
Let the bright sheen
Of your grace be seen,
Fair hope of my fatherland!
Come now, thou genius grand,
And bring down inspiration;
With thy mighty hand,
Swifter than the wind’s violation,
Raise the eager mind to higher station.
Come down with pleasing light,
Of art and science to the fight,
O youth, and there untie
The chains that heavy lie,
Your spirit free to blight.
See how in flaming zone
Amid the shadows thrown,
The Spaniard’s holy hand
A crown’s resplendent band
Proffers to this Indian land.
Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
University of santo tomas: a la juventud filipina
Thou, who now wouldst rise
On wings of rich emprise,
Seeking from Olympian skies
Songs of sweetest strain,
Softer than ambrosial rain;
Thou, whose voice divine
Rivals Philomel’s refrain
And with varied line
Through the night benign
Frees mortality from pain;
Thou, who by sharp strife
Wakest thy mind to life;
And the memory bright
Of thy genius’ light
Makest immortal in its strength;
And thou, in accents clear
Of Phoebus, to Apelles dear;
Or by the brush’s magic art
Takest from nature’s store a part,
To fig it on the simple canvas’ length
Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
University of santo tomas: a la juventud filipina
Go forth, and then the sacred fire
Of thy genius to the laurel may aspire;
To spread around the fame,
And in victory acclaim,
Through wider spheres the human name.

Day, O happy day,

Fair Filipinas, for thy land!
So bless the Power to-day
That places in thy way
This favor and this fortune grand!

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
University of santo tomas: a la juventud filipina

TO THE FILIPINO YOUTH (1879)

• Written by an 18 year old Rizal
• Rizal’s prize-winning and inspiring poem.
• It was a classic in Philippine literature for two reasons:
1. It is the first great poem in Spanish written by a Filipino,
whose merit was recognized by Spanish authorities
2. It expressed for the first time the nationalistic concept of
Filipinos, and not the foreigners, were the “fair hope of the
Fatherland”.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
University of santo tomas: a la juventud filipina

TO THE FILIPINO YOUTH (1879)

A La Juventud Filipina is an inspiring poem that states that
the Filipino youth are capable of great things. It urges the
Filipino youth to reach their potential by harnessing their skills
and talents for the betterment of our countrymen. It motivates
the youth to free Filipinos from ignorance, and to seek freedom
and human dignity.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
University of santo tomas: a la juventud filipina

RELEVANCE:
The message of “A La Juventud Filipina” is still applicable
today. We are suffering in this pandemic, the economy is
failing, political issues, and undisciplined citizens. It is a
reminder that we, the filipino youth have a responsibility to
stand with what is right and not be blinded.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
University of santo tomas: a la juventud filipina

VALUE:
He used his literary skills in a competition but it serves as
motivation to different generations.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
 GE 08

LIFE AND WORKS OF RIZAL

RIZAL’S HIGHER EDUCATION
REPORTED BY: MEJIA, RENIEL
BS MECHANICAL ENGG, 3A
Champions of filipino studies

• Fight against the arrogant Spanish students

- Indio, Chongo
- Kastila, Bangus
• Compañerismo (Comradeship)
- Founded by rizal in 1880
- Companions of Jehu
- Patriotic education, protection, and support
• El Consejo de Los Dioses (The Counsil of God)
- 4th centennial death anniversary of Cervantes (1880)

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
Educations and travels abroad

• First Travel Abroad : Education

- May 3, 1882, at the age of 21, he took a ship (SS Salvadora)
for Europe.
- Jose Mercado
- Secret Mission
 help his oppressed motherland
 prepare himself for liberating his oppressed people from
Spanish tyranny

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
Rizal in Europe, 1882 – 1885
The first voyage to spain: Views and impressions

• May 9, 1882 - Salvadora docked in Singapore

• May 11, 1882 - transfer to Djemnah (a french Steamer)
• May 17, 1882 reach Punta de Gales (point Galle) Southern
Ceylon
• Colombo (Capital of Celyon)
• Cape of Guardufui, Africa
• May 27 1882, Aden
• June 2, 1882 - Suez Canal

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
Rizal in Europe, 1882 – 1885
The first voyage to spain: Views and impressions

• June 11, 1882 - Naples at Italian City

• June 12, 1882 Marseilles
• June 16, 1882 Rizal arrived at Barcelona
• November 3, 1882 – enrolled at Unibersidad Central de Madrid
• Decided to visit Paris on June 17-20 1883
• After 2 years in Spain, financial problems
• June 21,1884 - completed his medical courses in Spain
• 1885, He specialized ophthalmology

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
Relevance and values

• From ship, now we’re also using Planes as mode of

transportations
• Secret Society to Students affair
• Confidence of being Filipino
• Nationalism
• Love

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
 GE 08

LIFE AND WORKS OF RIZAL

RIZAL’S HIGHER EDUCATION
REPORTED BY: BASA, JAYFFERSON
BS MECHANICAL ENGG, 3A
The University Student in Madrid
• His departure for Spain was kept secret from Spanish
Authorities, friars and even his parents especially his
mother because she would not allow him to go
• To avoid detection , he used the name Jose Mercado
• On May 3, 1882 he boarded on Salvadora bound for
Singapore where he was the only Filipino passenger
• On November 3, 1882, he enrolled in Universidad Central
de Madrid taking up two courses: Philosophy an Letters
and Medicine
• On June 21, 1884 , he conferred the degree of Licentiate
in Medicine Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
The University Student in Madrid
• The Following academic year , he studied and passed all
subjects leading to the degree of doctor of medicine
• Unfortunately, he was not able to submit the thesis
required for graduation nor paid the corresponding fees
• With that, he was not awarded his Doctor’s Diploma
• Jose Rizal also finished his studies in Philosophy and
Letters with higher grades
• He was awarded the Degree of Licentiate in Philosophy
and Letters by the Universidad Central de Madrid June
19, 1885 with the rating of excellent.
Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
The University Student in Madrid

Relevance:
We can relate this move of Rizal to some people who,
after finishing their studies here in the Philippines, move to
another country to pursue additional studies to further gain
knowledge on their chosen field.

Value Integration:
• We can succinct that being courageous can bring you on
to improvements. Just like Rizal, he was not afraid to
travel alone and to explore more of his abilities. He was
courageous to explore more of what he thinks Readinghe can
Course

benefit from. SSE 210 In the

Social Sciences
The Circulo Hispano-Filipino
• Established in 1882 by a group of Filipino students in
Madrid.
• It was led by Juan Atayde.
• The organization aims to voice out concerns of Filipinos
• Notable members are Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. Del Pilar,
Juan Luna, Graciano Lopez Jaena.
• Revista del Circulo Hispano-Filipino was a newspaper
published by the organization which aimed at expressing
thoughts about the abusive Spanish government

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
The Circulo Hispano-Filipino

Relevance:
One good example is the rallies and protest of some
groups to the government. Rallies are held because some of
the actions of the government make a significant change
which affects the life of other people. Protest is so important
for democracy because, people realize that they are not
alone; by protesting, we alter the agenda and start a debate; it
provides an essential voice for minority groups and we
sometimes win.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
The Circulo Hispano-Filipino

Value Integration:
Courage. I think that making a propaganda takes
courageousness, and we know for a fact that Rizal was
courageous on anything that he fights for. It is a good value
to possess, and it can help others by being the voice of the
oppressed.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
Entry into the Freemasonry
• Freemasonry is a fraternal organization that arose from
obscure origins in the late 16th to early 17th century.
• It is administratively organized into Grand Lodgesor
sometimes orients, each of which governs its own
jurisdiction, which consists of subordinate (or
constituent) Lodges.
• Grand Lodges recognize each other through a process of
landmarks and regularity.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
Entry into the Freemasonry
• Rizal was made a Master Mason on November 15, 1890
at Logia Solidaridad 53 in Madrid, Spain.
• He affiliated with a lodge under the jurisdiction of Grand
Orient of France on October 14, 1891 and was made
honorary Worshipful Master of Nilad Lodge No. 144 in
1892.
• He delivered a lecture entitled “La Masoneria”

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
Entry into the Freemasonry

Relevance:
Joining groups that has the same ideals as you have some
benefits. For example, here in the PSU, we have different
groups that share the same ideals, like the Philippine Society
of Mechanical Engineers (PSME), we possess the same
attributes, and we want connections someday with
colleagues, so we decided to join the group.

Value Integration:
Being sociable can help having connections. By joining
groups, it can help engage activities that canReading
helpCourse
other
people with your ideals. SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
 GE 08

LIFE AND WORKS OF RIZAL

RIZAL’S HIGHER EDUCATION
REPORTED BY: DELA CRUZ, BENJIE
BS MECHANICAL ENGG, 3A
The Writing of Noli Me Tangere

Noli Me Tangere

• Rizal's first novel Noli Me Tangere consist 63 chapters and an epilogue which exposes the
abuses and inequities of many Spanish Catholic friars and government officials during his
time.
• Rizal was a student of medicine at the Universidad Central de Madrid when he started writing
it and was 26 years old at its publication.
• The author fittingly dedicated the novel to the country of his people whose miseries and
sorrows, he brought to light in an attempt to awaken them to the truths concerning the ills of
their society.
• Published in early 1887 in Europe.
• The novel is now commonly called by its shortened name Noli. Its English translation is
usually titled “Touch Me Not and The Social Cancer.” The Latin title, which means "touch me
not" was taken from Christ's words.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
The Writing of Noli Me Tangere
The Writing of the Novel

• Influenced by Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin an anti- slavery novel.
• Rizal suggested the creation of the book in the meeting of the Filipinos in Madrid at Paternos
Residence in January 1884. The present are including the Paternos,Graciano Lopez Jaena,
Valentin Ventura. Eduardo de Lete, Evaristo Aguirre and Julio Llorente.
• The proposal that all of them would contribute papers on the various facets of life in the
Philippines was unanimously approved by those present at the reunion.
• Rizal explained in his letter dated January 2 1884, the plan nonetheless did not materialized
• Rizal started to writing alone the novel in Madrid towards the end of the same year and
finished about of half of it.
• Leaving for France in 1885, he had written the third quarter of the novel in Paris.
• In Wilhelmsfeld, he penned the last few chapters of Noli from April to June 1886.
• The novel was completed in Berlin, Germany at the end of 1886, and the final draft was ready
for publication at the onset of the year 1887.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
The Writing of Noli Me Tangere

The Printing of Noli

• The main problem is how could he published it if he had insufficient money.

• Dr. Maximo Viola went to Germany to invite Rizal to accompany him on a Europe tour.
• To economize in its printing, Rizal made some adjustments in the novel. He deleted the
chapter titled "Elias and Salome," which was supposedly Chapter 25, following the chapter, "In
the Woods."
• The P300 Viola lent to Rizal was thus used to print the first 2,000 copies of the Noli
• In some references states that Noli Me Tangere officially came of the press on March 29,
1887 although record also showed that by March 21 Rizal was already sending Blumentritt a
copy of novel
• For his generous act, Maximo Viola had fittingly gone down in Philippines history as "The
savior of the Noli"
• Rizal gave the first copy to Viola which come off the press on which Rizal inscribed a
dedication which described Viola as the "first to read and appreciate Rizal's works."

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
The Writing of Noli Me Tangere

Rizal's Objectives in Writing of Noli Me Tangere

In another letter to Ferdinand Blumentritt, Rizal described what he expects when the novel will be
in circulation. Finally, he pointed out his primary objective:
• to defend Filipino people from foreign accusations of foolishness and lack of knowledge;
• to show how the Filipino people lives during Spanish colonial period and the cries and
sadness of his countrymen against abusive officials;
• to discuss what religion and belief can really do to everyday lives; and
• to expose the cruelties, graft, and corruption of the false government at honestly show the
wrongdoings of Filipinos that led to further failure.

But the real objective of Rizal in writing Noli Me Tangere is not to free our country, he just wants
Philippines to be part of Spain

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
The Writing of Noli Me Tangere

Relevance

Patron Saint of Nothing By Randy Ribay

“So the drug war continues. The body count rises.”
“It is a shame what is happening in this country. And it is a shame that the Church has
been so quiet. That all of us have been so quiet. That the world has been so quiet.”

Value Integration

• Jose Rizal’s Noli Me Tangere tells us that we should reflect on our actions and beliefs for our
country.
• It teaches us the values of wisdom, fighting what is right, and loving our country. This novel is
being taught in school in order to not repeat the history itself by learning how to love our
country and to empower the youth as the catalyst of change for our country.
• Being a true Filipino is what Jose Rizal wants us to be, to know who we are and what is our
true goals will make the country flourished.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
Ophthalmic training under Dr. Louis de Weckert and Dr. Otto
Becker
Dr. Louis de Weckert and Dr. Otto Becker

• Rizal first studied the eye under the famous French ophthalmologist, Louis de Wecker (1832-
1906)
• Although he held no academic position, de Wecker was a prolific author and an active
teacher.
• He introduced ophthalmoscopy into France and advanced ocular surgery
• Rizal was highly impressed by de Wecker's surgical skills and felt his surgical training was
progressing well.
• In February 1886, Rizal moved to Heidelberg. There he found university students at a pub and
inquired about good professors in ophthalmology. He was directed to the Eye Clinic of Otto
Becker
• Becker (1828-1890) was professor of ophthalmology at the University of Heidelberg from 1868
to 1890 and helped make this department one of the best in Germany.
• He wrote a text on the anatomy of the normal and diseased lens and collected more than
1800 pathologic specimens.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
Ophthalmic training under Dr. Louis de Weckert and Dr. Otto
Becker
Rizal's Ophthalmic Training

• Rizal served as assistant at de Wecker's clinic from November 1885 to February 1886
• According to Rizal's letter sent to his family, there were 50 to 100 patients go daily to the clinic
of Wecker; there are days when they perform as many as 10 major operations.
• He learned how to perform all the operations; and he need to know what is going on inside the
eye, which requires much practice so he decided to go to Germany.
• Rizal spent the next 6 months working as assistant to Becker.
• He practiced in the hospital and examine the patients who come every day: the professor
corrects their mistakes in diagnosis, he also help in curing.
• On his way back to de Wecker's clinic in Paris in 1887, Rizal took time to travel through
Europe to learn from and visit with some additional prominent ophthalmologists and scientists.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
Ophthalmic training under Dr. Louis de Weckert and Dr. Otto
Becker
Rizal's purpose of training
• Rizal decided to become an ophthalmologist as he was receiving letters from home about his
mother’s failing eyesight
• He became an ophthalmologist also because of love, but love for his mother. His mother was
turning blind and he desired to give her back her vision.
• Just like he wanted to heal his countrymen from the "blindness" by the oppressive foreign
power, the Spanish friars.
 
Values

Responsible - Rizal is being responsible because when he learn about the condition of his
mother's eye which suffering to cataract, he spend time to train in Europe to became an
ophthalmologist.
Love - Love for his mother which inspired him to study an ophthalmology so that when he is
going home he can cure his mother's eye.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
 GE 08

LIFE AND WORKS OF RIZAL

RIZAL’S HIGHER EDUCATION
REPORTED BY: BACANI, JOYCE ANNE
BS MECHANICAL ENGG, 3A
The Speech that Attracted the Attention of Reactionary
Spaniards in the Philippines
• June 25, 1884 at Restaurante Ingles in Madrid, Spain, Rizal delivered an
eloquent speech at a banquet to honor the Filipino painters Juan Luna and Felix
Resurreccion Hidalgo
• In the first few parts he described the surroundings with much romanticism like he
is circled by “men of heart”, “where noble emotions dwell”, and “the air is full
of empathetic good feeling”
• It’s about the acknowledgement and thanking of the two artists for the pride and
glory they gave to the Filipinos.
• Speech was mentioned in the newspaper El Liberal – news about this event
reached the Philippines
• Rizal made enemies with his speech and said that he can never go back to
the Philippines

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
Friendship with Ferdinand Blumentritt
• Ferdinand Blumentritt is an Austrian scholar and school teacher to whom Rizal
first wrote in July 1886

• When his correspondence with Rizal began, he was a master teacher at

Leitmeritz (today known as Litomerice in the Czech Republic) and had already
published scholarly writings on Philippine languages and ethnography.

• Before heading into the Philippines Rizal arrived in Leitmeritz on 14 of May 1887
to meet Ferdinand Blumentritt
• The death of his “best and dearest friend” did not end Blumentritt’s relationship
with the Philippines. The Austrian scholar continued his ethnographic and
historical studies on the Philippines and remained a loyal advocate of Philippine
independence.

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences
Completion of Studies in Spain
• Rizal was conferred the degree of Licenciado en Medicina (Licentiate
in Medicine) by the Universidad Central de Madrid on June 21, 1884.
• Continued Doctorate in medicine but was not awarded the degree
because of his failure to present the thesis requires for graduation
(he wasn’t able to paid the corresponding fees)
• On his 24th birthday he was awarded the Licenciado en Filosofia y
Letras (Licentiate in Philosophy and Letters)

Reading Course
SSE 210 In the
Social Sciences