Edexcel

AS Physics Unit 2
Waves
Frequency
The number of oscillations per unit time

Measured in Hertz (Hz)

Period
 
The time taken for a point on a wave to move through
one complete oscillation

Measured in seconds

T =
Amplitude
The maximum displacement of a wave from the
equilibrium position

Measured in metres (m)

Wavelength, λ
The distance between two corresponding points on a
wave

Measured in metres (m)

Trough
The minimum or lowest point of a wave in a cycle
Crest
The maximum or highest point of a wave in a cycle
Mechanical waves

Waves which require a medium to travel through

E.g. water waves, sound waves and seismic waves

Propagation

The direction of travel of a wave

Continuous waves

Waves with an infinite length

Wave trains

Waves with a finite length

Pulse

Very short wave motion

Transverse waves
Disturbance occurs perpendicular to the propagation
of the wave
Longitudinal waves
Disturbance occurs parallel to the propagation of the
wave
Wave fronts
An imaginary surface that moves with a wave
Wave speed (ms-1)

Wave speed= Frequency (Hz) x Wavelength (m)

V = ƒλ
Rays
The direction in which the energy of a wave is
travelling

Lines which pass through wave fronts at 90°

Electromagnetic spectrum
The range of electromagnetic waves listed according to
their origins and properties

Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared, Visible light,

Ultraviolet, X-Rays and Gamma
Electromagnetic waves
Waves consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields (vectors) that are perpendicular to each other
and to the direction of movement of the wave energy
Travel at 3 x 10-8 ms-1 in a vacuum
Energy is transported as photons
Transverse
Radio waves
Wavelength = >10cm
Frequency = between 108 and 1010 m
Origin = Oscillating electrons
Detection = Radio aerials
Properties = Reflected by ionosphere, easily
diffracted
Uses = Communication, Radio
astronomy
Microwaves
Wavelength = Between 10cm and 10mm
Frequency = 1010 Hz
Origin = Magnetrons
Detection = Tuned cavities
Properties = Reflected by metals, absorbed
by metals
Uses = Communications, cooking
Infrared
Wavelength = Between 1mm and 700nm
Frequency = 1012 Hz
Origin = Hot bodies
Detection = Photography, heating effect
Properties = Emitted by all bodies above
zero Kelvin, penetrates fog
Uses = Satellite surveying, TV
controls
Visible light
Wavelength = Between 700nm and 400nm
Frequency = 1014Hz
Origin = Hot bodies, electron de-
excitation
Detection = Eye, photography
Properties = Colour
Uses = Sight, communication
Visible light spectrum
Red light (620-750nm, 400-484THz)
Orange light (590-620nm, 484-508THz) λ
Yellow light (570-590nm, 508-526THz) decreases,
Green light (495-570nm, 526-606THz) ƒ
increases
Blue light (450-495nm, 606-668THz)
Indigo light (420-440nm, 715-665THz )
Violet light (380-450nm, 668-789THz)

Remember: Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain

Ultraviolet
Wavelength = Between 400nm and 1nm
Frequency = 1015Hz
Origin = Mercury lamps, electron de- excitation
Detection = Photography, fluorescence, solid state
detectors
Properties = Causes skin cancer (ionisation),
absorbed in
upper atmosphere
Uses = Food sterilisation, sun beds
X-Rays
Wavelength = Between 1nm and 1pm
Frequency = 1018Hz
Origin = X-Ray tube, de-excitation of
inner electrons
Detection = Photography, fluorescence
Properties = High penetration, health
hazard
Uses = Diagnosis, radiotherapy,
astronomy
Gamma rays
Wavelength = Between 1pm and 1fm
Frequency = 1020Hz
Origin = Nuclear decay
Detection = Photography, GM counter,
scintillation counter
Properties = Very highly penetrating,
health hazard
Uses = Diagnosis, radiotherapy
Superposition
When two or more waves meet, the total displacement
at any point is the sum of the displacements that each
individual wave would cause at that point
Interference
An effect that occurs when two or more waves overlap
to produce a new wave pattern (change in amplitude)

Interference patterns provide evidence for the wave

nature of light
Constructive Interference
The interference that occurs when two or more waves meet at a
point such that the resultant displacement is greater than the
largest individual displacement

Bright bands/ loud sounds

Maxima

In phase, nλ
Destructive Interference
The interference that occurs when two or more waves meet at a
point such that the resultant displacement is less than the
largest displacement

Waves must have same λ or ƒ and the same amplitude

Antiphase, (n+½)λ

Dark bands/ no sound

Minima
Polarisation
Unpolarised wave= waves oscillate in many planes

Polarised wave = waves oscillate in one plane only

Polaroid filter only enables waves oscillating in one

plane to pass through

Filters at 90°
Doppler Effect
The change of frequency of a wave due to relative
motion between the source and the observer
Resonance

A phenomenon that occurs when the frequency at

which an object is made to vibrate (the forced
frequency of vibration) is equal to the natural
frequency of vibration
Damping
Energy is lost due to friction between the oscillating
body and the particles in the air

The amplitude of oscillations decrease with time

The higher the damping, the faster the oscillations will

reduce in size
Simple harmonic motion

The motion of an object such that its acceleration is

proportional to its displacement from a fixed point and
is always directed to that point
1st Harmonic
2nd Harmonic
3rd Harmonic
Stationary (standing) wave
A wave in which the vibrational energy is stored,
rather than transmitted
Node
A point on a standing wave where the amplitude
vibration is zero or a minimum
Anti-node
A point on a standing wave where the amplitude of
vibration is maximum
Tension
 
Higher tension increases frequency (higher pitch)
V=

V = wave speed (ms-1 )

T = tension (N)
M = mass per metre of the string (kgm-1 )
Phase difference
A measure of how much one wave leads or lags behind
another wave

Measured in degrees or radians

E.g. Cosine curve lags behind the Sine curve by a

phase difference of 90° (п/2 rad)
Diffraction
The spreading out of a
wave as it passes through
an aperture (gap)

Maximum diffraction
occurs when the size of
the aperture is similar to
the wavelength
Refraction
The change of direction of a wave as it passes the
boundary between two media

As the wave refracts, wave speed and wavelength

changes

Frequency of the wave doesn’t change

Snell’s Law
 
n= n1sinθ1=n2sinθ2

n = refractive index
i or θ1 = angle of incidence
r or θ2 = angle of refraction
Refractive index, (n or μ)
 Constant for a medium

Snell’s law: n =

n=

E.g. nair = 1.0

nwater = 1.33
Critical angle, C
 
The angle of incidence for the denser medium for which the angle
of refraction is 90°

C= sin-1

θi < C  Ray is refracted

θi = C  Ray travels along boundary

θi > C  Total internal reflection

Redshift
The wavelength of light emitted from a star gets
shifted towards the red end of the spectrum if the
distance travelled by each successive wave increases

If the distance travelled is less, the wavelength gets

shifted to the blue end

Evidence for the expansion of the universe

Electricity
The Electron
Fundamental particle (lepton)

Charge = -1.6 x 10_34 C

Mass = 9.11 x 10-31 kg

Found in orbitals surrounding the nucleus of an atom

Potential Difference
The electrical energy per coulomb transferred
between two points in a circuit

Measured in volts (V)

Electromotive Force
The energy supplied per unit coulomb to the circuit by
the cell

Measured in volts (V)

Resistance R
The ratio of the potential difference across a component and
the current flowing through it

R=V/I

Caused by collisions between metal ions and electrons

Measured in ohms (Ω)

Dependent on the metal’s length, cross-sectional area and

resistivity
Micro meter
A device used to measure very small distances

Diameter of a wire

Need to measure at multiple points along wire

diameter slightly varies
Multimeter
A device used to measure resistance between two
points on a metal wire
Resistivity ρ
R=ρl/A

Resistance= coefficient of resistivity x length of metal

cross-sectional area

Measured in Ωm

Constant for a material

Internal Resistance, Vr
The resistance to a movement of charge (current)
within an electrical power source

V r= E-V

Vr = Potential difference across internal

resistance (“lost volts”)
E = Electromotive force
V = Terminal potential difference
I=ΔQ/t
I = Current (amps)

Q = Charge (Coulombs)

t = time (seconds)
I=navq
I=current (amps)

n= number of charge carriers per unit volume

v=drift velocity (ms-1 )

q= electron charge (1.6 x 10-19 C)

Energy Transferred (W)
Energy transferred = charge x potential difference

W=QV

Measured in joules
Work done
The total amount of energy transferred

Work done = Power x time

Power = Voltage x current

 Work done = Voltage x current x time

Series Circuits

RT = R1 + R2

Current is the same for each component in the circuit

Potential difference increases
Resistance increases
Parallel Circuits
1 = 1 + 1
RT R 1 R 2

RT = (R1R2)
(R1+R2)

Total current is shared between the components

Components have the same potential difference
Bulbs in parallel 4x brighter than in series  less
resistance
Potential divider
 
To calculate ...

  𝑅2   𝑅 2 ×𝑉 𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜= ∴ 𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅 2 𝑅 1 + 𝑅2

Step 1: Calculate the ratio of the resistances

Step 2: Multiply by its corresponding resistance ration

Filament lamp
 • Non-ohmic

• Current

• metal filament temp.

• Metal atoms vibrate faster

and further from initial
positions

• More collisions

• Resistance (gradient
increases)
Metallic Conductor
(at constant temperature)

 • Ohmic

• V I (at constant
temp.)
Semiconductor diode
• Non-ohmic

• Has 2 resistances
depending on
polarity (way it is
connected)

• Forward direction=
low resistance

• Reverse direction =
high resistance
Thermistor
 • Temp.

• Current

• Charge carrier
density

• Resistance
Light-dependent resistor (LDR)

•  e- released when light

shines on it

• Charge carrier density

• Current

• Resistance

• Dark = no extra e-
available higher
resistance
Power dissipation P
The
  rate at which energy is transferred to an element in a
circuit

Measured in Watts (W)

P=VI Where…

P=I2R P = Power (W)

I = Current (A)
V = Voltage (V)
P=
Kirchhoff's 1st Law
The total current into any point in a circuit is equal to
the total current out of that point

E.g. I1+I2=I3+I4+I5
Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law
The sum of the potential rises and falls around a
closed path in a circuit is zero
The Nature of Light
Black body

A perfect emitter and absorber of electromagnetic

radiation
Planck’s constant, h
h= 6.63 x 10-34 Js
Where…
E= hƒ
E = Photon energy (eV)
ƒ = frequency (Hz)
E= hc c = speed of light
(3 x 10-8 ms-1)
λ λ = de Broglie Wavelength (m)
p = momentum (kgms-1)
λ= h = h m = mass of an electron
(9.1 x 10-31 kg)
p mv v = velocity of
Maximum kinetic energy, ½mv2max
Increases with frequency

½mv2max= hƒ – Φ

hƒ = photon energy

Φ = work function of
metal
Photoelectric effect
The ejection of an electron from a metal surface when
the surface is irradiated with electromagnetic
radiation of a high enough frequency
Gold Leaf Electroscope
Zinc plate given electrostatic charge
Electromagnetic wave with a frequency above the
threshold frequency or energy above ф hits the plate,
electrons emitted
The gold leaf loses charge so will fall
Threshold frequency ƒₒ

The minimum frequency required in order for

photoelectrons to be emitted from a metal surface
Frequency of incident radiation
 
Increases kinetic energy of emitted electrons
This is because the energy of the photon is increased

Where...
ƒ= ƒ= frequency of incident radiation (Hz)
λ= wavelength of incident radiation (m)
c= 3 x 10-8 (ms-1)
ƒ=
E= Photon energy (eV)
h=Plank’s constant (6.63 x 10-34 Js)
Intensity of incident radiation
The higher the intensity of a beam of light, the more electrons
are emitted from a metal surface

This is because more photons are hitting the metal per second

Intensity has no effect on the speed of the photoelectrons

emitted, only increases the number of electrons emitted

Intensity α Amplitude2 (for a sinusoidal wave)

Work Function Φ
The energy required to release an electron from the
surface of a metal

Constant for a metal

Where…
Φ = hƒₒ
h = Planck’s constant (6.63 x 10-34 Js)
ƒₒ= threshold frequency (Hz)
Stopping Potential, eVstop

Voltage required per unit coulomb to stop the outward

movement of electrons emitted by photoelectric
action.

½mv2max = eVstop
Energy levels
Electrons occupy discrete energy levels
Ground state= lowest energy level an atom can occupy
(n=1)
Energy is transferred in the collisions
When they gain energy, electrons move to higher
energy levels then return to their ground state by
emitting photons
E=hf
Energy level diagrams
Shortest wavelength highest energy photon
Energy shown as negative as energy must be provided
in order for a electron to move to a more excited state

E.g. Energy level

diagram for hydrogen.
Shortest wavelength (in
red), longest wavelength
(in green)
Radiation Flux (Intensity)
The
  amount of energy landing on an area per unit time

F=

F= Intensity (Wm-2 )

P=Power (W)

A=Area (m2 )
Photovoltaic Efficiency

Efficiency = useful energy (or power) input x 100%

total energy (or power) input
Electronvolt

The energy transferred when an electron travels

through a potential difference of one volt

1eV= 1.6 x 10-19 C

Absorption and Emission spectra
The spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic
radiation emitted or absorbed due to an atom's
electrons making a transition from a high energy state
to a lower energy state
Two types: continuous and line