Course Outline: Chapter One: Open Channel Flow

Course outline
Chapter One: Open Channel Flow Chapter Three: Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF)
1.1 Open Channel Flow and Its Classification 1.1 RVF VS GVF
1.2 Basic Hydraulics Principles 1.2 Flow Over Spillways
1.3 Specific Energy and Critical Depth
1.3 Hydraulic Jump and Its Use as Energy
1.4 Critical State of Flow Dissipater
1.5 Flow Computation Formulas
1.4 Flow Under gates
Chapter Two: Gradually Varied Flow
(GVF) Chapter Four: Sediment Transport in Open
Channels
2.1 General Equation for GVF
2.2 Classification of Flow Profile 1.1 Characteristics of Sediment
2.3 GVF Computations 1.2 Hydraulic properties of Sediment
Chapter Five: Creating Water Profiles 1.3 Mode of Sediment Transport
using Excel or related softwares 1.4 Design of Stable Channel
01/13/2022 Open channel hydraulics 1
Course Description
Flow computations: critical flow, uniform flow.
Gradually varied flow: differential equations of gradually varied flow; gradually varied flow
profiles, computations of gradually varied flow
Rapidly varied flow: flow characteristics, flow over spillways, flow under gates, hydraulic jump and
its use as energy dissipater.
Sediment transport and design of stable channels:
sediment transport in open channels, hydraulic properties of sediments, mode of sediment transport,
design of stable channels

What is open channel flow?
The flow of liquid through a channel with a free surface is defined as

open channel flow.
This free surface of the liquid is subjected to atmospheric pressure.

Hence, open channel flow can also be defined as the flow of liquid
through a passage at atmospheric pressure

Illustration of open channel

Cont’d
The flow in an open channel takes place due to gravity that is achieved
by providing a bed slope.
The flow of liquid through the open channel can be of several types like
steady and unsteady flow, laminar or turbulent flow or uniform or
non-uniform flow and finally sub-critical, critical and supercritical
flow

Differences between open channel flow and pipe flow

Open Channel Flow and Pipe flow to show the basic differences

Types of Open Channel
Depending on the channel is manmade:-
Natural channel
Artificial channel
Based on boundary characteristics
Rigid boundary: - lined channel no problem of sediment
Mobile boundary:-unlined channels where sediment problem exists
Based on cross section and slope
Prismatic: - Cross section and slope remain constant in the reach.
Non-Prismatic: - cross section and slope vary with space and time.

Types flow in open channel
1. Steady and Unsteady Flow
In an open channel flow, if the flow parameters such as depth of flow, the
velocity of flow and the rate of flow at a particular point on the fluid do not
change with respect to time, then it is called as steady flow.
If v is the velocity of the fluid, Q is the rate of flow and d is the depth of flow,
then for a steady flow:
dv/dt = 0; dQ/dt = 0; dy/dt = 0;

Cont’d
And is at any point on the open channel flow, the flow parameters like depth
of flow, the velocity of flow and rate of flow do change their value with
respect to time, then it is called as an unsteady flow. It is hence given by :
dv/dt ,dQ/dt and dy/dt not equal to Zero

• Oscillatory sea waves,
• Dam breaks flood waves,
• Surges due to gate operation, Floods and etc

Uniform Flow and Non-Uniform Flow
The flow in the channel is said to be uniform, if, for a given length of
the channel, the velocity of flow, the depth of flow remains constant. i.e
dy/dS = 0 ; dv/dS=0;
In a Non-uniform flow, the flow parameters like velocity, depth of flow,

etc do not remain constant for a given length of the channel
dy/dS and dv/dS not equal to zero

Definition of non-uniform flow
The Non-uniform flow can be again defined as Rapidly varying flow

(R.V.F) and Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F). In the case of R.V.F, the
depth of flow rapidly changes over a smaller length of the channel. It
rises up suddenly for a short length and settles back. While in a G.V.F,
the depth of flow changes gradually over a longer length of the channel.

Open Channel Flow Types Illustration

Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Laminar and turbulent flow in open channel flow is defined based on
the Reynolds Number, Re. The Reynolds number is given by the
relation:

If the Reynolds number Re is less than 500 or 600, then the flow is
called laminar flow. If the Reynolds number is more than 2000, then
the flow is said to be turbulent.
A flow that has Reynolds number between 500 and 2000 is said to be in
the transition state.

Critical, Sub-Critical and Super - Critical Flow
The open channel flow is categorized as critical or sub-critical or super-

critical based on the Froude number Fe. Froude number is given by the
relation:

Cont’d
Open channel flow is Sub-critical if the Froude number is less than 1. Sub-
Critical open channel flow is also defined as a tranquil or streaming flow.
An open channel flow with a Froude number equal to one is a critical flow.
And super-critical flow in open channel has a Froude number greater than 1.
A supercritical flow is also termed as rapid flow or torrential flow or

shooting flow.

Continuity Equation
It is the law of conservation of matter (matter neither gained nor loosed
but transformed from one matter to other).
In open channel flow the continuity principle for a constant discharge Q
is:

Continuity Equation
If the mean velocity remains constant (V1 = V2) then the cross-sectional area A (A =
Q/V) remains constant. The open channel has a prismatic cross -section.
This means for uniform flow a constant water depth in all section.
Uniform flow is a result from an exact balance between the force of gravity and the
frictional resistance
Application of the continuity principle to unsteady, open channel flow is more difficult. In
unsteady open channel flow the water surface will change over a certain distance
Δx=x2−x1 and during a certain time:Δt.
Cont’d

Cont’d
This is the equation of continuity for

unsteady open channel flow.

Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel
Reading Assignment

Quiz(5%) 10minutes
Q1. what is open channel hydraulics?(1pt)
Q2. List types of open channel?(1pt)
Q3. Jot down the list of types of flow in open channel hydraulics using
space and time as criteria.(3pt)

Energy Principles in open channel flow
The energy equation and the momentum equation are used in addition to
the continuity equation in analyzing fluid-flow situations.
They are both derived from Newton’s second law of motion.
Consider a particular open channel flow shown in figure below.

Figure xx Energy in gradually varied open channel flow

From figure xx above free liquid surface, i.e. open channel flows the total energy
can be given as follows:-

Cont’d

Con’t
In general, every streamline passing through a channel section will have a different
velocity head, owing to the non-uniform velocity distribution in actual flow. Only in
an ideal parallel flow of uniform velocity distribution can the velocity head be truly
identical for all points on the cross-section. In the case of gradually varied flow,
however, it may be assumed, for practical purposes, that the velocity heads for all
points on the channel section are equal, and energy coefficient (Coriolis
Coefficient ) may be used to correct for the overall effect of the non-uniform
velocity distribution. Thus, the total energy, equation at a channel section takes the
form
Derivation
According to principle of conservation of energy, the total energy head at

upstream section 1 should be equal to the total energy head at downstream
section 2 plus the loss of energy hf between the two section Taking x-axis along
the bed of the channel and differentiating the above equation with respect to x.

Cont’d
This equation applies to parallel or gradually varied flow. Consider now a prismatic channel.
The line representing the elevation of the total head of flow is the energy line.
The slope of the line is known as the energy gradient, denoted by Sf. The slope of the water
surface is denoted by Sw and the slope of the channel bottom by So = tan θ. In uniform
flow, Sf = Sw = So = tan θ.

Specific Energy and Critical Depth
The “Specific energy” is the average energy per unit weight of water
with respect to the channel bottom.
Therefore, the specific energy is the sum of the water-depth (y) and the
velocity head, if the streamlines are straight and parallel.

Critical Flow:
The variation of specific energy with depth at a constant discharge

shows a minimum in the specific energy at a depth called critical depth
at which the Froude number has a value of one.
Critical depth is also the depth of maximum discharge, when the

specific energy is held constant.

Cont’d
Critical depth is defined as the depth of flow where energy is at a
minimum for a particular discharge.
Flow profiles are classified by the slope of the channel (So), yn, and yc.
Reading Assignment
Super critical, momentum principles and flow computation

Formulas

GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF)
Steady non-uniform flow in a prismatic channel with gradual changes
in its water surface elevation
• For example,
backwater produced by a dam or weir across a river
drawdown produced at a sudden drop in a channel
• In GVF
velocity varies along the channel
bed slope, water surface slope, and energy slope will all differ from
each other
Cont’d
The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a

comparatively short distance; otherwise, it is gradually varied. A rapidly
varied flow is also known as local phenomenon examples are the
hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop. Gradually varied flow is a
steady flow, whose depth varies gradually along the channel. This
means that 3 conditions are met

Basic assumption of GVF
The flow is steady flow
The depth and other characteristics at particular section do not change

with time foe the period under consideration.
The stream lines are practically parallel.
The slope of the channel is small.
The velocity distribution across the channel section is fixed.

General Equation for Gradually varied flow

Cont’d
The main forces involved in open channel flow are inertia, gravity,
hydrostatic force due to change in depth and friction.
The first three forces represent the kinetic and potential energy, while
the forth dissipates useful energy into the useless kinetic energy of
turbulence and eventually into heat due to action of viscosity.
The total energy of an elementary volume of water is given as: K

Classification of Water Surface Profiles
Process of identification of possible flow profiles as a prelude to quantitative
computations
As y approach to y0, dy/dx approach to 0 , i.e. the water surface approaches the
normal depth line asymptotically.
As y approach to yc, dy/dx approach to ∞, i.e. the water surface meets the critical
depth line vertically.
high curvatures at critical depth zones violate the assumption of gradually-
varied nature of the flow
Hence, GVF computations have to end or commence a short distance away
from the critical-depth location

Classification of Water Surface Profiles

Homework
Q2. Derive the expression for the slope of water surface for a wide
rectangular channel, by using Chezy’s formula.(5pts)
Q3. Derive an expression for the slope of water surface for a wide
rectangular channel, by using Manning’s formula.(5pts)
Submission date: 5/12/2021---Tomorrow

Classifications of flow profiles
The surface curves of Water are also called flow profiles.
In a given channel normal depth and critical depth are two fixed depths if
discharge , roughness, and bed slope are fixed. Also there are three
possible relations between normal and critical depth as follow
1. Normal depth greater than critical 2. normal depth less than critical and 3.
both equal

• Further there are two cases where normal depth does not exist,
i.e. when
1. channel bed slope is zero that is bed is horizontal and
2. the channel is adverse slope that is bed slope is negative

Cont’d
Based on the above, the channels are classified in to five categories ,for each of the
five categories of channels, lines representing the critical depth and normal depth
can be drawn longitudinal section. These would divide the whole flow space in to
three regions.
Region 1: Space above the topmost line
Region 2: Space between top line and the next lower line.
Region 3: Space between the second line and the bed.

Classification of channels

Region of flow profiles

NB
The flow profile is a backwater curve if the depth of flow increases in
the direction of water (i.e. dy/dx is positive)
The flow profile is a drawdown curve if the depth of flow decreases in
the direction of flow (i.e. dy/dx is negative)

summary of profiles

GVF flow computation
The main objective in the Computation is to determine the shape of the
water surface. There are three methods of computation
1. Direct integration method. (reading assignment)
2. Graphical integration method(reading assignment)
3. Numerical method (the step method)

Summary on GVF
In non-uniform flow, the depth of flow is not constant along the length
of the channel.
The non uniform flow may be rapidly varied, as in hydraulic jump, or
gradually varied, as in back water curve.
In non uniform flow,
SW≠SO≠SF

Summary of GVF
The form and position of water surface profiles can be predicted from
the study of the dynamic equation gradually varied flow.
The dynamic equation of gradually varied flow gives the relationship
between the water surface slope with respect to bed and other flow
characteristics.
the general form of the equation is

summary on GVF
For a given discharge Q, the slope which causes critical flow is the
critical slope.
If the bed slope is flatter than the critical slope for that discharge, the
bed slope is called mild slope.
On the other hand, if the bed slope is steeper than the critical slope, the
bed slope is steep.
Summary on GVF
In non uniform flow, it is convenient to divide the vertical distance
above the bed in 3 zones.
Zone 1 is above both the critical depth line (CDL) and the normal depth
line (NDL).
Zone 2 is between these lines and zone 3 is below both lines.
Depending upon the zones and bed slopes, the flow profiles are
classified in to 13 types.
The length of the surface profile can be estimated either by direct
integration or graphical integration or direct step method.

Presentation (15pts)
G-1( 3 members)
Basic principles of Hydraulics, Energy principles , momentum principles and
continuity principles in open channel hydraulics, velocity and pressure
distribution in open channel
G-2(3 members)
Flow computation formulas :critical flow, methods of critical flow
computations ,uniform flow in open channel and equation for uniform flow
computations
G-3( 3 members)
1.Direct integration method of GVF
2. Graphical integration method OF GVF
3. Hydraulic Jump in RVF
RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF)
Characteristics of RVF
Pronounced curvature of streamlines. ⇒Abrupt change of flow profile (virtually broken)
Example: Hydraulic Jump
In view of contrast with GVF, the following characteristic features of RVF should be noted.
Pronounced curvature ⇒ hydrostatic pressure distribution can not be assumed
Rapid variation in flow regime takes place in a very short distance. ⇒Effect of boundary friction,
which would play a primary role in a GVF, is comparatively small and in most cases insignificant.

Cont’d
In RVF the velocity distribution coefficients α and β are much greater than
unity and cannot be accurately determined.
Flow is actually confined by separation zones as well as solid boundaries.
(Because profiles could be broken).

Three isolated cases of RVF are discussed here. Viz.
 Flow over spillway
 Hydraulic jump
 Flow under gate
Flow over spillways
Spillway: is a structure over or through a dam for discharging flood
flows; overflow channel; opening built into a dam or the side of a
reservoir to release (to spill) excess floodwater.
Sharp-crested weir (SCW) vs Broad crested weir (BCW)

Cont’d
The height of the water above the crest of the weir is called the head
over the weir and is shown as H in both of the diagrams.
It is the parameter that is measured and used to determine the flowrate.
There are equations available to calculate flow rate, Q, over the weir for
given head over the weir, H.
Also for a given weir, Q can be experimentally correlated with H.

Broad Crested Weir
Consider subcritical flow (with specific energy 𝐸𝑎, discharge per unit width 𝑞)
approaching a region where the bed is raised by Δ𝑧𝑏.
This region is sufficiently long for parallel flow to be established (hence “broad-
crested”), but insufficiently long for significant frictional losses.
As total head (𝐻 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸) is constant, the specific energy is reduced over the weir
(to 𝐸𝑎 − Δ𝑧𝑏). If this still exceeds the minimum specific energy 𝐸𝑐 for this discharge
then the flow remains subcritical over the bump and resumes its original depth
downstream.
If, however, the bed rise is sufficiently large then, as the specific energy
cannot be less than 𝐸𝑐, the upstream flow must “back up”, increasing the
depth and specific energy immediately upstream of the weir.
In the latter case we have the following (writing Δ𝑧𝑏 = 𝑧𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟): critical
flow over the top of the weir with:

Broad crest weir

Broad crest weir

An example for a long channel with subcritical normal flow is shown below.
Upstream, the flow relaxes via GVF.
Downstream, it jumps back to subcritical flow following a length of GVF.
If any downstream controls are sufficiently far away then the flow jumps
directly back to its “preferred” depth for the channel; i.e. normal depth.
However, this cannot always be assumed: for shorter fetches, e.g. in the
hydraulics laboratory flumes, the downstream depth will not be normal; the
flumes are nowhere near long enough

Flow over broad crest weir

Sharp crest weir
Open channel flow occurs with a free surface open to the atmosphere, thus
meters using change in pressure cannot be used as in pipe flow measurement.
For open channel flow measurement, a change in depth of flow at some point
is typically measured and correlated with water flow rate.
The most common methods of measuring open channel flow rate are with a
weir or a flume.
The sharp crested weir (v notch weir and rectangular weir).

Sharp Crested Weir parameters:- Free Flow

Sharp Crested Weir (free flow)

Sharp Crested Weir (drowned flow)

The difference between broad and sharp crest weir
The sharp crested weir will help in measuring the discharge of the water from the
small rivers and canals and the weir is placed in the direction of the flow of water.
The broad crested weir is one which the water flow discharge in measured from
large water bodies like big canals
Broad-Crested weirs are much thicker in cross section when compared to sharp-
crested weirs.
They are commonly used to measure the discharge of larger rivers and
agriculture / irrigation canals.
D/c b/n broad and sharp crest weir
Sharp-crested weirs can be distinguished from Broad-Crested ones by
the body of water (nappe) that springs from the downstream edge (crest)
of the weir.
Broad-crested weirs have the body of water passing over the weir and
into the downstream channel with only a depression in the surface level
of the water (there is no springing nappe).

D/c b/n broad and sharp crest weir
Sharp-crested weirs can be plates simply perpendicular to the flow axis
or they have V-shape, triangular (Cipolletti), or rectangular cut-outs in
then, but regardless of shape they are usually best for measuring smaller
flows.
Both sharp-crested and broad-crested weirs require that the approaching

flow be sub-critical. Neither weir will operate in its usual accuracy
range in the presence of critical or super-critical flow.

Which type can be?

Underflow Gates
At the gate the flow passes smoothly through critical conditions from
subcritical to supercritical flow.
Neglecting frictional losses, the total head is the same on both sides

Sluice gate
Provided the gate is not lifted too high then, in a rectangular channel
with 𝑉=𝑞ℎ⁄ and flat bed from which 𝑧 is measured, depths ℎ1 and ℎ2 are
the subcritical and supercritical solutions respectively, of

(Note that, because of the hydrostatic assumption implicit in the
expression for total head, ℎ2 is the depth where parallel flow has become
established; i.e. at the vena contracta.)
The depth downstream of the gate is controlled by some downstream

obstacle and the jet of water issuing from under the gate is overlaid by a
mass of water that is quite turbulent.

Sediment transport in open channel
Sediment transport is the general term used for the transport of material
(e.g. silt, sand, gravel and boulders) in rivers and streams.
The transport material is called sediment load.
Distinction is made between the bed load and suspended load.
The bed load characterized by grains rolling along the bed while and
suspended load refers to grains maintained in suspension by turbulence

The main objective of sediment transport hydraulics is to predict
whether an equilibrium condition, erosion (scour) or deposition (silting)
will occur and to determine the quantities involved.
The rate of sediment transport, expressed as mass, weight or volume per

unit time can be determined from measurements or from calculations.
Both methods only have a low degree of accuracy so that the sensitivity
of the design to possible variations in the calculated transport rates has
to be considered.

The main reason for the empirical character of sediment transport
knowledge is the complexity of the transport process.
The interaction of a turbulent flow, the characteristics of which are only

known by empirism, and a boundary consisting of loose sediments
cannot be described by simple equations.
Most of our knowledge is based therefore on experiments and

measurements both in the field and in laboratories.

Study of sediment transport by water used for:
River morphology: knowledge of sediment transport forms the basis for

design of river-training works, navigation improvement, and flood control.
Irrigation: design of stable channels, intake works, settling basin;
Hydropower: sedimentation of reservoirs, weir of turbines, outlet structures

has to be designed to deal with sediments and sediment routing;
Coastal engineering: prediction of littoral draft, design of coastal protection

works harbors.

The main objective of sediment transport hydraulics is to predict
whether an equilibrium condition, erosion (scour) or deposition (silting)
will occur and to determine the quantities involved.
The rate of sediment transport, as a mass, weight or volume per unit

time can be determined by two methods by:
a. measurement
b. calculations

Both methods only have a low degree of accuracy so that the sensitivity
of the design to possible variations in the calculated transport rate has to
be considered.
Most of our knowledge is based on experiments and measurements both

in the field and in the laboratory.

Sediment properties
Density
Size and shape of a grain
Grain size distribution
Settling velocity

Bedforms, bed roughness and effective shear stress
Bedforms
Once sediment starts to move, various bed forms occur. In laboratory flumes the
sequence of bed forms with increasing flow intensity is Flat bed, Ripples, Dunes,
High stage flat bed and Antidunes.
Bed roughness
The bed roughness ks is also called the equivalent Nikurase grain

roughness, because it was originally introduced by Nikurase in his pipe
flow experiments, where grains are glued to the smooth wall of the pipes.

The only situation where we can directly obtain the bed roughness is a
flat bed consisting of uniform spheres, where ks = diameter of sphere.
Generally the bed roughness can be obtained indirectly by the velocity

measurement.
Effective shear stress

In the presence of ripples, the resistance to the flow consists of two
parts, one originating from the skin friction, another due to the form
pressure of the ripples, i.e. τb= τb’+ τb”
where τb’ is also called effective shear stress, because it is τb’ which is
acting on single sediment.
Transport modes
There are three sediment transport modes
a) Wash load very fine particles which are transported by the water, but
these particles do not exist on the bed. Therefore the knowledge of bed
material composition does not permit any prediction of wash load transport.
b) Bed-load the part of the total load which has more or less continuous
contact with the bed. Thus the bed load must be determined in relation to the
effective shear stress which acts directly on the grain surface

c) Suspended load the part of the total load which is moving without
continuous contact with the bed as the result of the agitation of the fluid
turbulence.
The appearance of ripples will increase the bed shear stress (flow
resistance).
On the other hand, more grains will be suspended due to the flow
separation on the lee side of the ripples.

The basic idea of splitting the total sediment load into bed-load and
suspended load is that, two different mechanisms are effective during
the transport.
As to the boundary between the bed-load and the suspended load,

argument is still going on.
The SI unit for sediment transport q is m / m s, read cubic meter of

3 *
sediment per meter width per second. Note that q is expressing volume
of sediment.
Bed-load transport formulae

Einstein-Brown formula
The principle of Einstein’s analysis is as follows: the number of deposited grains
in a unit area depends on the number of grains in motion and the probability
that the hydrodynamic forces permit the grains to deposit.
The number of eroded grains in the same unit area depends on the number of
grains in that area and the probability that the hydrodynamic forces are strong
enough to move them.
For equilibrium conditions the number of grains deposited must be equal to the
number of grains eroded, which, together with experimental data fitting, gives

Bagnold formula
Bagnold proposed a formula based on the work done by current. The formula has the same form as
the modified Meyer-Peter formula.
Suspended load
Consider a steady flow in an open channel. The sediment is kept in suspension by turbulent
fluctuations.
Sediment concentration c has the unit m /m , i.e. the volume of sediments in 1 cubic meter water.
3 3
The classical approach to calculate the vertical distribution of suspended sediment is to apply
Prandtl’s mixing length theory.

Total sediment transport
• It is the summation of bed load sediment and suspended sediment in
open channel hydraulics.

Design of Stable Open Channels
Adequate conveyance capacity
Stable channel
Provide aquatic life habitat
These objectives must be met considering future conditions, reasonable
cost, minimal
land consumption, and safety.
Reading assignment
How to design stable channel in open channel hydraulics.

Group discussion(10%)
Q1. Discuss in detail on the following RVF flow(5pts)
a. hydraulic jump and its energy dissipate
b. flow under gates and over spillway(broad and sharp crest weir)
Q2. Describe the sediment transport in open channel hydraulics(each
mode of transport, its hydraulics properties and how to design stable
channel) (5pts)

Course Outline: Chapter One: Open Channel Flow

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Course Outline: Chapter One: Open Channel Flow

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Course outline

Flow computations: critical flow, uniform flow.

profiles, computations of gradually varied flow

its use as energy dissipater.

Sediment transport and design of stable channels:

design of stable channels

01/13/2022 Open channel hydraulics 2

The flow of liquid through a channel with a free surface is defined as

This free surface of the liquid is subjected to atmospheric pressure.

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dv/dt = 0; dQ/dt = 0; dy/dt = 0;

dv/dt ,dQ/dt and dy/dt not equal to Zero

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In a Non-uniform flow, the flow parameters like velocity, depth of flow,

dy/dS and dv/dS not equal to zero

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The Non-uniform flow can be again defined as Rapidly varying flow

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The open channel flow is categorized as critical or sub-critical or super-

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A supercritical flow is also termed as rapid flow or torrential flow or

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This is the equation of continuity for

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They are both derived from Newton’s second law of motion.

Consider a particular open channel flow shown in figure below.

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According to principle of conservation of energy, the total energy head at

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The variation of specific energy with depth at a constant discharge

Critical depth is also the depth of maximum discharge, when the

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Super critical, momentum principles and flow computation

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The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a

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The depth and other characteristics at particular section do not change

The stream lines are practically parallel.

The slope of the channel is small.

The velocity distribution across the channel section is fixed.

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The total energy of an elementary volume of water is given as: K

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