FUNDAMENTALS AND

MIXED SIGNAL
SENSORS
LESSON 2
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
The Ideal Op-Amp
The ideal op-amp has characteristics that simplify analysis
of op-amp circuits. Ideally, op-amps have infinite voltage
gain, infinite bandwidth, and infinite input impedance. In
addition, the ideal op-amp has zero output impedance.

Vin Zin = ‘ AvVin Vout

Zout = 0
Av = ‘

+
Operational Amplifiers

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are very high gain dc

coupled amplifiers with differential inputs. One of the inputs
is called the inverting input (-); the other is called the
noninverting input. Usually there is a single output.
Most op-amps operate from plus and minus
supply voltages, which may or may not be +V

shown on the schematic symbol. –

+
8
1 1
8 8 20
1 1 –V
DIP DIP SMT SMT
The Practical Op-Amp
Practical op-amps have characteristics that often can be
treated as ideal for certain situations, but can never actually
attain ideal characteristics. In addition to finite gain,
bandwidth, and input impedance, they have other limitations.

Vin Zin AvVin Vout

Zout

+
Block Diagram
Internally, the typical op-amp has a differential input, a
voltage amplifier, and a push-pull output. Recall from the
discussion in Section 6-7 of the text that the differential
amplifier amplifies the difference in the two inputs.

+
Push-pull
Differential Voltage
amplifier
Vin amplifier amplifier(s) Vout
output
– input stage gain stage
stage
Signal modes
The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-
mode or in common-mode. V in

Vout
Differential-mode signals are +

applied either as single-ended

(one side on ground) or
double-ended (opposite phases –
Vin
on the inputs). Vout
+

Differential signals
Signal modes
The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-
mode or in common-mode. V in

–
Common-mode signals are
Vout
applied to both sides with the
+
same phase on both.
Vin
Usually, common-mode –
signals are from unwanted Vout
sources, and affect both +
inputs in the same way. The Vin
result is that they are Common-mode
essentially cancelled at the signals
output.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
The ability of an amplifier to amplify differential signals and
reject common-mode signals is called the common-mode
rejection ratio (CMRR).
Aol
CMRR is defined as CMRR 
Acm
where Aol is the open-loop differential-gain
and Acm is the common-mode gain.
 Aol 
CMRR can also be expressed in decibels as CMRR  20 log  
A
 cm 
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

What is CMRR in decibels for a typical 741C op-amp?

The typical open-loop differential gain for the 741C is 200,000 and the
typical common-mode gain is 6.3.

 Aol 
CMRR  20 log  
A
 cm 
200, 000
 20 log  90 dB
6.3
(The minimum specified CMRR is 70 dB.)
Voltage and Current Parameters

VO(p-p): The maximum output voltage swing is determined

by the op-amp and the power supply voltages
VOS: The input offset voltage is the differential dc voltage
required between the inputs to force the output to zero volts
IBIAS: The input bias current is the I1  I 2
I BIAS 
average of the two dc currents required 2
to bias the differential amplifier
IOS: The input offset current is the
I OS  I1  I 2
difference between the two dc bias
currents
Impedance Parameters –

ZIN(d)
ZIN(d) : The differential input impedance
is the total resistance between the inputs
+

–
ZIN(cm) : The common-mode input
ZIN(cm)
impedance is the resistance between
each input and ground +

Zout: The output impedance is the –

Zout

resistance viewed from the output of the

+
circuit.
Other Parameters
Slew rate: The slew rate is the maximum rate of change of
the output voltage in response to a step input voltage
Vout
Slew Rate 
t Vout (V)
Determine the slew rate for the output
13
response to a step input. 12

0 t
Vout  12 V    12 V 
Slew Rate  
t 4.0 μs –12
–13
4.0 m s
= 6 V/ms
Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is the process of returning a portion of
the output signal to the input with a phase angle that opposes
the input signal.
The advantage of negative
feedback is that precise values Vin +
Vout
of amplifier gain can be set. In
Vf –
addition, bandwidth and input
Internal inversion makes Vf
and output impedances can be 180° out of phase with Vin.
controlled. Negative
feedback
circuit
Noninverting Amplifier
A noninverting amplifier is a configuration in which the
signal is on the noninverting input and a portion of the
output is returned to the inverting input.
Feedback forces Vf to be equal
+
to Vin, hence Vin is across Ri. Vout
With basic algebra, you can Vin –
Rf
show that the closed-loop gain Vf Feedback
of the noninverting amplifier is circuit
Rf Ri
Acl (NI)  1 
Ri
Noninverting Amplifier
A noninverting amplifier is a configuration in which the
signal is on the noninverting input and a portion of the
output is returned to the inverting input.
Feedback forces Vf to be equal
+
to Vin, hence Vin is across Ri. Vout
With basic algebra, you can Vin –
Rf
show that the closed-loop gain Vf Feedback
of the noninverting amplifier is circuit
Rf Ri
Acl (NI)  1 
Ri
 Noninverting Amplifier

A special case of the inverting amplifier is when Rf =0 and

Ri = ∞. This forms a voltage follower or unity gain buffer
with a gain of 1. V in ++
The input impedance of Vout
out
the voltage follower is – Rf
very high, producing an 82 kW

excellent circuit for

Ri
isolating one circuit from 3.3 kW
another, which avoids
"loading" effects.
Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier is a configuration in which the
noninverting input is grounded and the signal is applied
through a resistor to the inverting input.
Feedback forces the inputs to Rf
be nearly identical; hence the
inverting input is very close to Ri
0 V. The closed-loop gain of –
the inverting amplifier is Vout
Vin
Rf +
Acl (I)  
Ri

0 V (virtual ground)
 Inverting Amplifier

Determine the gain of the inverting amplifier shown.

Rf

Rf 82 kW
Acl (I)  
Ri Ri
–
82 k 3.3 kW
 Vout
3.3 k Vin +

= -24.8

The minus sign

indicates inversion.
Impedances

Noninverting amplifier:
Z in (NI)   1  Aol B  Zin Generally, assumed to be ∞
Z out
Z out (NI)  Generally, assumed to be 0
 1  Aol B 
Inverting amplifier:
Z in (I)  Ri Generally, assumed to be Ri
Z out
Z out (I)  Generally, assumed to be 0
 1  Aol B 
Note that the output impedance has the same form for both amplifiers.
Bias Current Compensation

For op-amps with a BJT input stage, bias current can

create a small output error voltage. To compensate for
this, a resistor equal to Ri||Rf is added to one of the inputs.
Rf Rf

Ri
– –
Vout Vout
Ri + Vin +

Rc = Ri || Rf Rc = Ri || Rf

Vin
Noninverting Inverting
amplifier amplifier
Bandwidth Limitations
Many op-amps have a roll off rate determined by a single
low-pass RC circuit, giving a constant -20 dB/decade down
to unity gain.
Aol (dB)
Op-amps with this 106
Midrange

100
characteristic are
called compensated 75
op-amps. The blue –20 dB/decade roll-off

line represents the 50

open-loop frequency
characteristic (Bode 25
Unity-gain frequency (f T)
Critical frequency
plot) for the op-amp.
0 f (Hz)
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
Bandwidth Limitations
Many op-amps have a roll off rate determined by a single
low-pass RC circuit, giving a constant -20 dB/decade down
to unity gain.
Aol (dB)
Op-amps with this 106
Midrange

100
characteristic are
called compensated 75
op-amps. The blue –20 dB/decade roll-off

line represents the 50

open-loop frequency
characteristic (Bode 25
Unity-gain frequency (f T)
Critical frequency
plot) for the op-amp.
0 f (Hz)
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
Bandwidth Limitations
Many
The op-amps
equation, have
Acl f(cl) = Aolafc(ol)
rollshows
off ratethat the determined
product of by the again single
low-pass
and bandwidth RC are
circuit, giving
constant. a constant -20
The gain-bandwidth dB/decade
product is also down
to unity
equal to thegain.
unity gain frequency. That is fT = Acl fc(cl), where fT is
the unity-gain bandwidth. A (dB) ol

Op-amps with this 106

Midrange

100
characteristic are Vin +
The
called fT compensated
for a 741C op amp is 1 MHz.
75 741C Vout
What
op-amps. is the BW
The blue
cl for the amplifier? –
–20 dB/decade roll-off
Rf
line represents the 50 82 kW
open-loop R frequency 82 k
Acl (NI)  1  f  1   25.8
characteristic Ri (Bode 3.3 k 25 Ri
Unity-gain frequency (f )
Critical frequency 3.3 kW T

plot) forf the op-amp.

1 MHz
BWcl  T   38.80 1kHz 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
f (Hz)

Acl 25.8
 Selected Key Terms
Operational A type of amplifier that has very high voltage
amplifier gain, very high input impedance, very low
output impedance and good rejection of
common-mode signals.

Differential A mode of op-amp operation in which two

mode opposite-polarity signals voltages are applied
to the two inputs (double-ended) or in which a
signal is applied to one input and ground to the
other input (single-ended).

Common mode A condition characterized by the presence of

the same signal on both inputs
 Selected Key Terms
Open-loop The voltage gain of an op-amp without external
voltage gain feedback.

Negative The process of returning a portion of the output

feedback signal to the input of an amplifier such that it is
out of phase with the input.

Closed-loop The voltage gain of an op-amp with external

voltage gain feedback.

Gain- A constant parameter which is always equal to

bandwidth the frequency at which the op-amp’s open-loop
product gain is unity (1).
 Quiz

1. The ideal op-amp has

a. zero input impedance and zero output impedance
b. zero input impedance and infinite output impedance
c. infinite input impedance and zero output impedance
d. infinite input impedance and infinite output
impedance
 Quiz

2. The type of signal represented in the figure is a

a. single-ended common-mode signal
b. single-ended differential signal
c. double-ended common-mode signal
d. double-ended differential signal

–
Vin
Vout
+
 Quiz

3. CMRR can be expressed in

a. amps
b. volts
c. ohms
d. none of the above
 Quiz

4. The difference in the two dc currents required to bias the

differential amplifier in an op-amp is called the
a. differential bias current
b. input offset current
c. input bias current
d. none of the above
 Quiz

5. To measure the slew rate of an op-amp, the input signal is a

a. pulse
b. triangle wave
c. sine wave
d. none of the above
 Quiz

6. The input impedance of a noninverting amplifier is

a. nearly 0 ohms
b. approximately equal to Ri
c. approximately equal to Rf
d. extremely large
 Quiz

7. The noninverting amplifier has a gain of 11. Assume that Vin

= 1.0 V. The approximate value of Vf is
a. 0 V Vin +

b. 100 mV Vout

Vf – Rf
c. 1.0 V 10 kW

d. 11 V Ri
1.0 kW
 Quiz

8. The inverting amplifier has a gain of -10. Assume that

Vin = 1.0 V. The approximate value of the voltage at the
inverting terminal of the op-amp is
a. 0 V Rf

10 kW
b. 100 mV Ri
–
c. 1.0 V 1.0 kW
Vout
Vin +
d. 10 V
 Quiz

9. To compensate for bias current, the value of Rc should

be equal to
a. Ri Rf

b. Rf Ri
–
c. Ri||Rf Vout
+
d. Ri + Rf Vin

Rc
 Quiz

10. Given a noninverting amplifier with a gain of 10 and a

gain-bandwidth product of 1.0 MHz, the expected high
critical frequency is
a. 100 Hz
b. 1.0 kHz
c. 10 kHz
d. 100 kHz
 Quiz

10. Given a noninverting amplifier with a gain of 10 and a

gain-bandwidth product of 1.0 MHz, the expected high
critical frequency is
a. 100 Hz
b. 1.0 kHz
c. 10 kHz
d. 100 kHz